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Wednesday, 23 November 2016

IT INPUTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHING

IT INPUTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHING

UNIT 4
IT INPUTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHING

4 .1.COMPUTER AIDED LEARNING    
 Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities. Computer-managed instruction (CMI) Computer-managed instruction is an instructional strategy whereby the computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress tracking, and assessment of learner performance. Computer based tools and applications are used to assist the teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process.

Computer assisted instruction (CAI)
A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed instructional materials. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place. CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum. CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's understanding. It is widely accepted that the integration of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into the teaching learning process has great potential. In fact, it could be the most important way by which states can meet their educational aspirations within reasonable time and resources.  The use of computers in Elementary schools is basically vision as a teaching and learning aid besides to develop computer literacy amongst the children. Computer aided learning will help us to make the present teaching learning process joyful, interesting and easy to understand through audio-visual aids. Teachers will be resourced with Multimedia Contents to explain topics better. Overall it will help us to improve quality of education in long learn. 
Usages of CAI
Development of multimedia based educational content
The Multimedia Based Educational Content will be developed in local languages/mediums besides English on the identified hard spots in Science, Mathematics and English subjects. These will be used for improved and enhance teaching-learning process in classrooms. Concepts hard to visualize, simulations and dynamic processes will be explained through good and effective graphics, sound, animations and video clips based on imaginative analogies and components locally available, commonly noticed by the children in real life.
The developed Multimedia Based Educational Content with an aim to help acquire knowledge, reinforce learning, and will go beyond to include conceptual clarity of the knowledge acquired. Adequate levels of visualization will be achieved through extensive use of graphics, simulation of laboratory models or experiments, animation, and good quality audio & video clippings. The interactivity provided by ICT will be effectively used to bridge gap between active learning and passive teaching and make learning a more interesting and enriching experience
Teacher training
The teacher-training programme has also been planned with an aim to providing exposure and familiarization to computer and multimedia based technology tools that can be productively used to improve and enhance teaching learning in the classroom:
Computer literacy

Focus will be also in inducing Computer Literacy in these selected schools as a byproduct. Usage and hands-on sessions on basic applications for teachers and also for selected students will be tried to incorporate during the later phase of the project.
Terminologies of computer assisted instruction
·         Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
·         Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
·         Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)
·         Computer Based Education (CBE)
·         Computer Based Instruction (CBI)
·         Computer Enriched Instruction (CEI)
·         Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

New terminology
·         Web Based Training
·         Web Based Learning
·         Web Based Instruction

Types of computer assisted instruction

1.      Drill-and-practice -Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
2.      Tutorial -Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.
3.      Games -Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others or beat the computer.
4.      Simulation -Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.
5.      Discovery-Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their explorations of the data.
6.      Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and strategies.

CAI provides
·         Text or multimedia content
·         Multiple-choice questions
·         Problems
·         Immediate feedback
·         Notes on incorrect responses
·         Summarizes students' performance
·         Exercises for practice
·         Worksheets and tests.

Advantages of CAI
 ·         One-to-one interaction
·         Great motivator
·         Freedom to experiment with different options
·         Instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited
·         Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace
·         Helps teacher can devote more time to individual students
·         Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns
·         Individual attention
·         learn more and more rapidly
·         Multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach
·         Self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn

Limitations of CAI
·         May feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available
·         Over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content
·         Learning becomes too mechanical
·         Non availability of good CAI packages
·         Lack of infrastructure

The critical role of teacher guidance and support
 The term ‘independent learning’ was commonly but inconsistently used in the interviews and its implications for pedagogy were sometimes unclear. Within the context of the increased level of individual or small group teacher-pupil interaction reported, independence from the teacher (but not peers) was clearly implied. While this was apparently motivating and most teachers mentioned that more pupils were ‘on task’ when using ICT, in many cases it was the more able students who ‘achieved well with little teacher input’ (FC). Self-directed work could make it harder to keep a low ability group on task (KE). The emphasis in teacher accounts shifted between pupil control and technical proficiency, and freeing up the teacher (‘there were very few people who I really had to tutor in going through the tasks’: DD). However the notion of ‘independent learning’ is misleading since teachers continually emphasized the importance of their guiding and supportive role and a widely shared view (by 7 teachers) expressed that this kind of teacher input was essential when pupils were using ICT, even in the context of more independent working.
In fact, in most cases it was the same teachers who reported taking a facilitating role yet less pupil reliance on teacher intervention. For instance, one teacher described his new role as one of helping children find information for themselves, with prompts but largely under their own control; he subsequently commented in the light of experience that “that traditional teacher role of helping them to understand it and put it in… context, is back” (FC). In some cases, pupil control and choice were very limited in practice despite an ‘independent learning’ setup. By contrast, two teachers recognized that too much open-endedness had proved confusing for pupils. These cases highlighted the importance of teachers being ‘quite active’ in guiding pupil activity to pre-empt floundering or off-task wandering. Interpreting the findings as a whole seems to point to the conclusion that it was easier in ICT supported lessons for most pupils to work without constant direction and intervention but that the teacher’s support and facilitation of learning remained of paramount importance (particularly for lower achieving pupils). Several teachers recognized this and expressed a desire for a balance between teacher direction and providing opportunities for “pupil-centered” learning. The central issue here was summarized by the reflection of one English teacher (YL) on his attempts to balance between being over-directive (providing more security but limiting imagination and risking similar task outcomes) and under-directive (providing opportunity for independent learning but risking confusion about task requirements).

Promoting active student participation, experimentation and independent thinking
A newly emerging role for teachers involved encouraging active participation in ICT-supported activity (described in eight interviews and one further case report). This built upon their belief that using ICT can enhance learning and motivation through the opportunities it provides for self regulated, active learning, i.e. for knowledge building rather than transmission, and for pupils working at their own pace. Exploiting these using strategies involving “little adult intervention” and pupil freedom to choose their methods of working and find “as much information as they like or as little” (OT) “meant that they could be discoverers rather than followers” (RA). In contrast, traditional “chalk and talk” lessons involved more teacher direction and “spoon feeding” according to six interviewees. Teachers generally considered themselves to be supporting student-regulated learning through facilitating information finding and developing understanding, e.g. by providing opportunities for experimentation, reflection and analysis. The emerging strategy (in eight cases) was one of prompting pupils with the aim of encouraging them to think for themselves and find their own solutions

Evaluation of ICT

Conventional approaches
Conventional approaches to impact assessment focus on whether a project has met its stated objectives and contributed to the achievement of the overall project goals.  This approach uses criteria of project relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability and looks at both intended and unintended impact.  Most of the ICT projects tend to follow this method.   While this method can be a cost-effective method, the following demerits often make an evaluation a ceremonial exercise.
Conventional approaches have been more donor-focused and donor driven. The donor becomes the key client, providing financial support and defining the terms of references for the evaluation. The evaluation criteria are laid down by the donor, making it impossible for the beneficiaries to participate. There is no attempt made to learn the lessons from the project. More often than not, the evaluation is carried out more to fulfill a management and accountability requirement than to respond to project needs.  An expert is hired or contracted out to conduct the evaluation, and in some cases the project staffs who are very close to the programme conduct some user interviews and fulfill the obligation to involve local project personnel. The expert more often than not does not have a clue about the cultural, economic and political settings of the beneficiaries. There is a pre-supposition that the programme was successful. Data is collected to determine whether the project met the overall goals and objectives, and a report is produced. An attempt is made to invent success stories and evidences to prove the usefulness of the project. 
Evaluation does not necessarily find the project as a failure, even if in reality if it was so. In most cases, stakeholders or beneficiaries play a very passive role, providing information but not participating in the evaluation itself. There is hardly any communication between the donor and the beneficiary.  The exercise is a linear one, leaving a two-way interaction between the donor and the evaluator.
Evaluation based on conventional approaches, if not properly administered, can become a one-way linear process, with little or no feedback to the project.  In an ICT project, project recipients and all stakeholders should be involved in understanding the internal dynamics of their project, its successes and failures, and in proposing solutions for overcoming the obstacles and utilizing the ICTs in context. 
The growth of the ICT sector is very fast in that there are new solutions found everyday to the practical problems faced on the ground.  The factors that affect the projects are often centered on the user behavior to the technology which may vary from place to place according to the social setting.  This makes it difficult for any evaluator to understand these complexities in the social context.   Hence, it is important to mix a number of evaluation tools and techniques that suit the context.
Participatory approaches
Participatory evaluations in ICT projects should primarily be oriented to the information needs of the programme stakeholders.   The scope of participants should include all stakeholders, beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the programme.  This will result in finding the reasons for not participating in the programme.  Participant negotiations are very important to reach a consensus on evaluation findings, and to solve problems and make plans to improve performance.  Views from all participants should be sought as more powerful stakeholders can undermine the others in a group.  This situation can be avoided and the role of evaluator in this approach becomes that of a facilitator.  Many ICT projects suffer from a lack of understanding of the project aims, objectives and concepts by all the stakeholders. New technologies, such as the Internet can often be difficult to rationalize and care is needed to prevent some people from becoming marginalized due to their lack of understanding of the technology. 
The following participatory evaluation framework can be incorporated into ICT programmes for enterprises development with necessary arrangements by programme staff and their collaborators, including government offices, NGOs and community members.  It may consist of four basic principles

·         Pre-planning and preparation
·         Generating evaluation questions
·         Data-gathering and analysis
·         Reflection and action

4.2. PRESENTATION SOFT WARE
 A presentation program is a software package used to display information in the form of a slide show. It has three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images, and a slide-show system to display the content.
Early presentation graphics software ran on computer workstations, such as those manufactured by Trollman, Genigraphics, Autographix, and Dicomed. It became quite easy to make last-minute changes compared to traditional typesetting and paste-up. It was also a lot easier to produce a large number of slides in a small amount of time. However, these workstations also required skilled operators, and a single workstation represented an investment of $50,000 to $200,000 (in 1979 dollars).
In the mid-1980s developments in the world of computers changed the way presentations were created. Inexpensive, specialized applications now made it possible for anyone with a PC to create professional-looking presentation graphics.
Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s several companies set up services that would accept the shows on diskette and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.
The first commercial computer software specifically intended for creating WYSIWYG presentations was developed at Hewlett Packard in 1979 and called BRUNO and later HP-Draw. The first software displaying a presentation on a personal computer screen was VCN Execu Vision, developed in 1982. This program allowed users to choose from a library of images to accompany the text of their presentation.

Features

A presentation program is supposed to help both the speaker with an easier access to his ideas and the participants with visual information which complements the talk. There are many different types of presentations including professional (work-related), education, entertainment, and for general communication. Presentation programs can either supplement or replace the use of older visual aid technology, such as pamphlets, handouts, chalkboards, flip charts, posters, slides and overhead transparencies. Text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides" or "foils". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device that has become somewhat obsolete due to the use of presentation software. Slides can be printed, or (more usually) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Transitions between slides can be animated in a variety of ways, as can the emergence of elements on a slide itself. Typically a presentation has many constraints and the most important being the limited time to present consistent information.
Many presentation programs come with pre-designed images (clip art) and/or have the ability to import graphic images, such as Visio and Edraw Max. Some tools also have the ability to search and import images from Flickr or Google directly from the tool. Custom graphics can also be created in other programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator and then exported. The concept of clip art originated with the image library that came as a complement with VCN ExecuVision, beginning in 1983.
With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying them in a similar "slide show" format. For example, Apple's i Photo allows groups of digital photos to be displayed in a slide show with options such as selecting transitions, choosing whether or not the show stops at the end or continues to loop, and including music to accompany the photos.
Similar to programming extensions for an operating system or web browser, "add ons" or plugins for presentation programs can be used to enhance their capabilities. For example, it would be useful to export a PowerPoint presentation as a Flash animation or PDF document. This would make delivery through removable media or sharing over the Internet easier. Since PDF files are designed to be shared regardless of platform and most web browsers already have the plug-in to view Flash files, these formats would allow presentations to be more widely accessible.
Certain presentation programs also offer an interactive integrated hardware element designed to engage an audience (e.g. audience response systems, second screen applications) or facilitate presentations across different geographical locations through the internet (e.g. web conferencing). Other integrated hardware devices ease the job of a live presenter such as laser pointers and interactive whiteboards
Using slideshows to accompany lectures is a popular teaching method, both with professors and students.  Slides offer something visual for students to look at while listening to the lecture and often professors will make slides available either before or after the lecture as an aid for review.  For instructors, having accompanying slides can help keep a lecture on track, making sure you don't miss any key points, and can serve as guideposts throughout the lecture so that you know how much material you have left to cover.
For years, Microsoft PowerPoint has been the go-to software for computer-based slideshows; but lately several other dogs have entered the fight.  This page will highlight some of the popular presentation software’s available, including key features and any points of hesitation.

Microsoft PowerPoint


PowerPoint Support Page: from this page of Microsoft's support website, you can search for answers to your questions, find articles that will help you get started with PowerPoint, or even find web-based training sessions on PowerPoint.  (Note that the default articles and training sessions are for the new 2013 Microsoft programs.  If you're still using PowerPoint 2010 or earlier, scroll to the bottom of the page to get articles and training for those versions.)

Features
·         Embed and edit video within a slide
·         Embed audio or voice over your PowerPoint presentation
·         Add bookmarks to media files to pause or enhance media at designated points
·         Microsoft-designed themes and animations to bring your slides to life
·         User-friendly - relatively intuitive design and layout
·         Comes with Microsoft Suite, so likely to already be at your fingertips (versus other programs that you might have to create accounts for, etc.)
·         The new PowerPoint 2013 will allow you to create a Microsoft Live account so that you can store your presentations in the cloud and work on them anywhere
·         Operating system-specific; viewers must have Microsoft Office or a program that can read Microsoft files to view show
·         Linear design for presentations limits the conceptual capabilities for presentations on non-linear subjects

Keynote
Keynote Support Page: from this page of Apple's support website, you can search for answers to your questions in the user forums, download the Keynote User's Guide, or read how-to articles on various Keynote features.

Features

·         Built in narration tool
·         Powerful tools for adding and editing graphics and other media files
·         Apple-designed themes and animations to bring your slides to life
·         Keynote app for iPad and iPhone has surprisingly similar functionality and ease-of-use as the  software itself
·         Intuitively similar to PowerPoint - linear, slide format
·         Integration with mobile Apple devices - Keynote Remote on iPad or iPhone allows you to control your presentation from the palm of your hand
·         Easy format conversions - import PowerPoint slides into Keynote, and vice versa; save your Keynote in other formats such as a QuickTime movie or PDF
·         When importing PowerPoint slides and vice versa, some features, such as particular fonts, may not translate exactly due to the differences in the programs
·         As an Apple product, Keynote is not available for PCs
  • Linear design for presentations limits the conceptual capabilities for presentations on non-linear subjects
Prezi
Prezi Online Manual: from this page of the Prezi website, you can access articles and tutorials on subjects ranging from basics, like learning the Prezi interface, to advanced features, like collaborating on Prezi presentations.  The menu in the gray column on the right highlights other features of the manual, such as most popular articles and user forums.

Features

·         Better depicts the complexity and interrelatedness of material; contrasted with the linearity of PowerPoint or Keynote
  • Better displays complex, non-linear ideas
  • Done properly, Prezis tend to be very visually appealing
  • Web-based - not specific to an operating system and able to be edited from any computer with internet access
  • Not nearly as intuitive to use
  • Less easy to import audio/video/graphics
  • Transitions, especially the zooming features, can cause queasiness for viewers
  • The free version offers no privacy settings for your presentations - everyone will be able to see them; however, if you use your .edu email address to set up your account, you can get the "Enjoy" package for free or a reduced price on the "Pro" package; both offer better customization and privacy options.
Slide rocket
Slide Rocket Support: from this page of Slide Rocket’s customer care website, you can search for answers to your questions, find answers to basic questions under Getting Started, and learn about more advanced features under Go Further.  You can also contact Customer Service from the right-hand column.

Features
 ·         Simple editing interface, reminiscent of Adobe Photoshop, with feature menus on both the left and right
  • Style similar to PowerPoint (linear representation)
  • Web-based - you don't need your computer or a memory device to work on your presentation; you can access and edit it from any computer by logging into your account on the Slide Rocket website.
  • With a style similar to PowerPoint, the learning curve is small.
  • While it can export as PPT file to be played through PowerPoint, many features of the Slide Rocket presentation may not translate in PowerPoint.  There is a way to export it as exe file in Windows or Mac OS so that you can play it on your computer, but this too can have problems.  Slide Rocket is a web-based program.  It works best if you link to its published form on the Slide Rocket website, but that requires making it publicly viewable.
  • With your .edu email address, you can sign up for the Pro version (all the bells and whistles) of Slide Rocket for free.
  • When you set up your account, they'll send you a confirmation email before you can start using it - if you don't get the email, check your Junk Mail box.
 Linux – open office impress
 Open Office Impress, a part of the Open Office  suite package and created by Sun Microsystems, is a presentation program similar to Microsoft PowerPoint. In addition to being able to create PDF files from presentations, it is also able to export presentations to SWF files, allowing it to be played on any computer with a Flash player installed. It is able to view, edit and save files in many file formats, including the .ppt format, which is used by Microsoft PowerPoint. Impress is distributed (spread) under an open source license so people can download it as free software. It released under the terms of the Apache License. Open Office Impress users can install the Open Clip Art Library, which adds a large amount of images for general presentation and drawing projects. Linux distributions Debian, Gentoo, Mandriva and Ubuntu have given the ready-to-use open clipart package for download and install from their online software repositories. impress creates exciting slideshow presentations, similar to PowerPoint. Impress can turn presentations into flash files and PDFs. You can even open and edit your existing PowerPoint files with Impress.
Open Office Impress is a presentation software program that is part of a suite of programs from OpenOffice.org, available as a free download. Open Office Impress uses a graphical approach to presentations in the form of slide shows that accompany the oral delivery of the topic. This program can be effectively used in business and classrooms. Open Office Impress is one of the simplest computer programs to learn. If you are at all familiar with Microsoft PowerPoint, then you will be right at home with this program. Anyone can create stunning presentations that look like they were designed by a professional. An added bonus is that you can open and use presentations that you have already created previously in PowerPoint.

4.3. PREPARATION OF ‘e CONTENT’
Information technology and the Internet are major drivers of research, innovation, growth and social change. The growth in Internet has brought changes in all walks of life including the education. E-content includes all kinds of content created and delivered through various electronic media from „ old media‟ such as print and radio to the increasingly sophisticated electronic tools with combination of sounds, images and text. E-content requires huge amounts of creativity both at 'information' level as well as the 'technology' level

Learning object design
Learning Management Systems (LMSs)are web-based application platforms used to plan, implement, and assess learning processes related to online and offline training, administration and performance management. LMS are defined as systems to manage learners, keeping track of their progress and performance across all types of learning activities. LMSs provide an instructor a way in which to create and deliver content, monitor learners' participation, and assess learners' performance. In fact many institutions, the Learning Management System may have one or two content-authoring tools. The content-authoring tool is software used to create multimedia content for delivery on the World Wide Web
Instructional design
Instructional design is a systematic, repetitive process of activities aimed at creating a solution for an instructional problem. The steps involved in instructional design are; setting an instructional goal; goal analysis; learning domains; learning outcomes; prepare criterion referenced test questions and a clear instructional strategy
The leaning domains are verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills and attitudes. The instructional strategies may be drill and practice, tutorials, simulations and educational games.
Types of Content-authoring tools
The Content-authoring tools are different in nature are; SCORM, AICC, PROMETEUS, ARIADNE, ADL, AASL and LTSC. (i)SCORM(Sharable Courseware Object Reference Model), is a set of specifications that, when applied to course content produces small reusable e-Learning objects; (ii)AICC(Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee), is an international association of technology- based training professionals that develops teaching guidelines for the aviation industry. It apply to the development, delivery, and evaluation of e-content training courses via technology; (iii) PROMETEUS (Promoting Multimedia Access to Education and Training in European Society) established with a clear underlying ideal to promote access to knowledge, education and e-content training for all European citizens; (iv)ARIADNE is a European Union project focusing on the development of tools for  producing, managing, and reusing computer based pedagogical elements in University of Switzerland; (v) ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning Initiative) is a program from the US Department of Defense and the White House Office of Science and Technology, to develop guidelines needed for efficient and effective e-content learning; (vi) AASL (American Association of School Librarians) has formulated the Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning and it concentrates the student, teacher and administrator; (vii) LTSC (Learning Technologies Standard Committee)has prepared technical standards and guidelines for the use of e-content components in Education and it is an internationally accredited Computer Society Standards Activity Board founded by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

Models of e-content development
The e-content development models are available in five different ways and they are as follows; An instructional design model by Kemp (1977) defined nine different components and adopted a continuous update with evaluation; (ii) teaching of media in systematic approach model by Vernon & Donald (1980) compared the different instruction design models; (iii) A Systematic Design of Instruction model by Dick &Carey (1990) described all the phases of process starts with instructional goals and ends with summative evaluation; (iv) Systems Reusable Information Object Strategy by CISCO (1999) consists of six content items viz., introduction; importance; objectives; pre-requisites; scenario; and outline with Learning Management System (LMS) and (v)Content based model by Cornea (2005) explained the learning objectives of a content and the content’s accessibility and reusability between various Learning Content Management System (LCMS).

Phases of e-content development
In e-content development aspects consists of six phases viz., analysis, design, development, testing, implementation and evaluation.
The analysis phase
It is the most important as it identifies area’s in our current situation. This phase accountability considered by the views of subject experts, target audiences, objectives and its goals. In this phase, we must know the audience, and their skill, budget of the e-content, delivery methods and its constraints with due dates.
The design phase
It involves the complete design of the learning solution. It helps to plan of an e-content preparation. In this phase, we must know the planning, use of relevant software; required skills; creative and innovative interactions of subject contents like texts, pictures, videos and suitable animations.
The development phase
It concerns the actual production of the e-content design. It helps to create the e-content by mixing of texts, audio, video, animations, references, blogs, links, and MCQs (multiple choice questions) with some programming specifications like home, exit, next etc.
The testing phase
 It helps to administer the e-content in the actual educational field. In this phase, we must test the spelling mistakes, content errors, clarity of pictures, relevant videos, appropriate audios, timing of animations, and hyperlinks.
The implementation phase
It helps to administer the e-content to the target audience. This phase explains how to install and how to use it and their difficulties experienced while using e-content. It checks the product accuracy and quality maintenance.
The evaluation phase
It helps to satisfy the e-content and its effectiveness. This phase considers feedback from both learners and instructors. After the feedback reactions, the e-content is designed again as post-production for effective delivery of e-content
Instructor’s role in the development of e –content
A competent instructor in e-content is, one who effectively and efficiently accomplishes a task in a given digital context, using appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes, and abilities that have adjusted with in a time and their needy competencies(Varvel, 2007). Also International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction organization developed the standard competencies for instructors in e-content development in the following domains: (a) professional foundations, (b) planning and preparation, (c) instructional methods and strategies, (d) assessment and evaluation, and (e) management. The following diagram illustrated the development of a multi media material
 Characteristics of e-content development
According to Anurag Saxena (2011) explained the possible methods of educational e-contents conversions are viz., (i) learning by doing and learning by investigation; (ii) learning by using themes; (iii) learning by testing / evaluation; (iv)learning by simulation and (v) learning by role-playing. As per the UGC (University Grants Commission, India) guidelines of e-content development needs the following categories viz., (i) home; (ii) objectives; (iii) subject mapping; (iv) summary; (v) text with pictures & animations; (vi) video and audio; (vii)assignments, quiz & tutorial; (viii) references, glossary & links; (ix) case studies; (x) FAQ‟s; (xi) download; (xii) blog and (xiii) contact. These categories are arranged sequentially by subject experts along with technical supporters and to develop the e-content materials. E-learning is a process and E-content is a product. E-content is generally designed to guide students through lot of information in a specific task.
An e-content package can be used as a teacher in the virtual classroom situations. The quality of learning depends not only on the form of how the process is carried out but also on what content is taught and how the content is presented. This approach of teaching has become an answer to the complicated problems and un-identified areas. In a class room, technology stimulates the learner and gets the learner involved in the learning. Books are an extension of brain; video is an extension of eye; audio is the extension of an ear; audio conferencing is the extension of mind & vocal cord; computer is an extension of fusion on mind, hands & eyes; satellite technology is an extension of human reach and computer network is an extension of human co-operation. So what we would expect from e-contents that it should be able to stimulate the learner in such a way that we utilizes the maximum of its potential in learning (Vijayakumari, 2011) e-content is valuable to the pupil and also helpful to teachers for all individual instruction systems; e-content is the latest method of instruction that has attracted more attention to gather with different concepts. The ultimate aim of the e-content is abolish the disparity among the learners through effective education. E-content is facilitating to the teacher to effective manner. It is enhancing the learner knowledge level which leads to creative thinking and it gives the future ideas on the basis of given links, and references.
E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The Information and communication systems whether networked learning or not, serves specific media to implement the learning process. It may be classified as Online and Offline. The online learning occurred through, e-forum, SMS / MMS, Search engines, Meta search engines, e-dictionaries, e-books and e-journals. Whereas the off-line learning occurred through MS Office applications, power-point presentations, downloaded documents and CD ROMs.
Parts of e content
Module
In software, a module is a part of a program. Programs are composed of one or more independently developed modules that are not combined until the program is linked. A single module can contain one or several routines . In hardware, a module is a self-contained component. A separable component, frequently one that is interchangeable with others, for assembly into units of differing size, complexity, or function. A selected unit of measure, ranging in size from a few inches to several feet, used as a basis for the planning and standardization of building materials.
Objective
A specific result that a person or system aims to achieve within a time frame and with available resources. In general, objectives are more specific and easier to measure than goals. Objectives are basic tools that underlie all planning and strategic activities. They serve as the basis for creating policy and evaluating performance. Some examples of business objectives include minimizing expenses, expanding internationally, or making a profit. Neutral (bias free), relating to, or based on verifiable evidence or facts instead of on attitude, belief, or opinion. Opposite of subjective.
 Glossary
A glossary, also known as a vocabulary, or clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the end of a book and includes terms within that book that are either newly introduced, uncommon, or specialized. While glossaries are most commonly associated with non-fiction books, in some cases, fiction novels may come with a glossary for unfamiliar terms. A bilingual glossary is a list of terms in one language defined in a second language or glossed by synonyms (or at least near-synonyms) in another language.  In a general sense, a glossary contains explanations of concepts relevant to a certain field of study or action. In this sense, the term is related to the notion of ontology. Automatic methods have been also provided that transform a glossary into ontology or a computational lexicon.
 Quiz
 A quiz is a form of game or mind sport in which the players (as individuals or in teams) attempt to answer questions correctly. In some countries, a quiz is also a brief assessment used in education and similar fields to measure growth in knowledge, abilities, and/or skills. Quizzes are usually scored in points and many quizzes are designed to determine a winner from a group of participants - usually the participant with the highest score. The Oxford English Dictionary attests the use of the verb quiz to mean "to question or interrogate", with a reference from 1843: "She com back an' quiesed us", which could be a clue to its origin. Quiz as a test could be a corruption of the Latin qui es, meaning "Who are you?" The American Heritage Dictionary says it may be from the English dialect verb quiset, meaning "to question". In any case it is probably from the same root as question and inquisitive.
 FAQ
Frequently asked questions (FAQ) or Questions and Answers (Q&A), are listed questions and answers, all supposed to be commonly asked in some context, and pertaining to a particular topic. The format is commonly used on email mailing lists and other online forums, where certain common questions tend to recur. "FAQ" is pronounced as either an initialism (F-A-Q) or an acronym. Since the acronym FAQ originated in textual media, its pronunciation varies; "F-A-Q". Depending on usage, the term may refer specifically to a single frequently asked question, or to an assembled list of many questions and their answers. Web page designers often label a single list of questions as a "FAQ", such as on Google.com, while using "FAQs" to denote multiple lists of questions such as on United States Treasury sites.  Here “FAQ" is an Internet textual tradition originating from the technical limitations of early mailing lists from NASA in the early 1980s. The first FAQ developed over several pre-Web years starting from 1982 when storage was expensive. In practice, this rarely happened and the users tended to post questions to the mailing list instead of searching its archives. Repeating the "right" answers becomes tedious, and went against developing netiquette.
Summary
 A summary means to write something in short like shortening a passage or a write up without changing its meaning but by using different words and sentences. the act of reducing a written work, typically a book, into a shorter form. A short document or section of a document, produced for business purposes, which summarizes a longer report or proposal or a group of related reports, in such a way that readers can rapidly become acquainted with a large body of material without having to read it all. A summary is not a rewrite of the original piece and does not have to be long nor should it be long. To write a summary, use your own words to express briefly the main idea and relevant details of the piece you have read. Your purpose in writing the summary is to give the basic ideas of the original reading. A comprehensive and usually brief abstract, recapitulation, or compendium of previously stated facts or statements.
We need innovative work in e-content material as a form of digital literacy in educational settings particularly to investigate the implications of new forms of social networking, knowledge sharing and knowledge building. And finally, because of the pervasive nature of e-content as a digital technology, the commercial interest that is invested in it and the largely unregulated content of Internet based sources; we also needs begin to sketch out what a critical digital literacy might look like. There is, in short, plenty to be done if we are to prepare children and young people to play an active and critical part in the digital future.

4.4. VIDEOCONFERENCING
 Videoconferencing (or video conference) means to conduct a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. A point-to-point (two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone. Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered to the other's speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor. Multipoint videoconferencing allows three or more participants to sit in a virtual conference room and communicate as if they were sitting right next to each other.
Videoconferencing (VC) is the conduct of a videoconference (also known as a video conference or video teleconference) by a set of telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way video and audio transmissions. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware.
Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference or multiple locations rather than individuals. It is an intermediate form of video telephony, first used commercially in Germany during the late-1930s and later in the United States during the early 1970s as part of AT&T's development of Picture phone technology. A videoconference is a live connection between people in separate locations for the purpose of communication, usually involving audio and often text as well as video. At its simplest, videoconferencing provides transmission of static images and text between two locations. At its most sophisticated, it provides transmission of full-motion video images and high-quality audio between multiple locations. A videoconference can be thought of as a phone call with pictures - Microsoft refers to that aspect of its NetMeeting package as a "web phone" - and indications suggest that videoconferencing will someday become the primary mode of distance communication.
With the introduction of relatively low cost, high capacity broadband telecommunication services in the late 1990s, coupled with powerful computing processors and video compression techniques, videoconferencing has made significant inroads in business, education, medicine and media. Until the mid 90s, the hardware costs made videoconferencing prohibitively expensive for most organizations, but that situation is changing rapidly. Many analysts believe that videoconferencing will be one of the fastest-growing segments of the computer industry in the latter half of the decade
Videoconferencing uses audio and video telecommunications to bring people at different sites together. This can be as simple as a conversation between people in private offices (point-to-point) or involve several (multipoint) sites in large rooms at multiple locations. Besides the audio and visual transmission of meeting activities, allied videoconferencing technologies can be used to share documents and display information on whiteboards. TV channels routinely use this type of video telephony when reporting from distant locations. The news media were to become regular users of mobile links to satellites using specially equipped trucks, and much later via special satellite videophones in a briefcase.
Videoconferencing systems throughout the 1990s rapidly evolved from very expensive proprietary equipment, software and network requirements to a standards-based technology readily available to the general public at a reasonable cost.
Finally, in the 1990s, Internet Protocol-based videoconferencing became possible, and more efficient video compression technologies were developed, permitting desktop, or personal computer (PC)-based videoconferencing. While videoconferencing technology was initially used primarily within internal corporate communication networks, one of the first community service usages of the technology started in 1992 through a unique partnership with PictureTel and IBM Corporations which at the time were promoting a jointly developed desktop based videoconferencing product known as the PCS/1. Over the next 15 years, Project DIANE (Diversified Information and Assistance Network) grew to utilize a variety of videoconferencing platforms to create a multi-state cooperative public service and distance education network consisting of several hundred schools, neighborhood centers, libraries, science museums, zoos and parks, public assistance centers, and other community oriented organizations.
In the 2000s, video telephony was popularized via free Internet services such as Skype and i-Chat, web plugins and on-line telecommunication programs that promoted low cost, albeit lower-quality, videoconferencing to virtually every location with an Internet connection. Technological developments by videoconferencing developers in the 2010s have extended the capabilities of video conferencing systems beyond the boardroom for use with hand-held mobile devices that combine the use of video, audio and on-screen drawing capabilities broadcasting in real-time over secure networks, independent of location. Mobile collaboration systems now allow multiple people in previously unreachable locations, such as workers on an off-shore oil rig, the ability to view and discuss issues with colleagues thousands of miles away. Traditional videoconferencing system manufacturers have begun providing mobile applications as well, such as those that allow for live and still image streaming.

Technology

The core technology used in a videoconferencing system is digital compression of audio and video streams in real time. The hardware or software that performs compression is called a codec (coder/decoder). Compression rates of up to 1:500 can be achieved. The resulting digital stream of 1s and 0s is subdivided into labeled packets, which are then transmitted through a digital network of some kind (usually ISDN or IP). The use of audio modems in the transmission line allow for the use of POTS, or the Plain Old Telephone System, in some low-speed applications, such as video telephony, because they convert the digital pulses to/from analog waves in the audio spectrum range.
The other components required for a videoconferencing system include:
·         Video input: video camera or webcam
·         Video output: computer monitor, television or projector
·         Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any other source of Pre Amp audio outlet.
·         Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone
·         Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet
·         Computer: a data processing unit that ties together the other components, does the compressing and decompressing, and initiates and maintains the data linkage via the network.
·         Kinds of videoconferencing systems
There are basically two kinds of videoconferencing systems:
Dedicated systems have all required components packaged into a single piece of equipment, usually a console with a high quality remote controlled video camera. These cameras can be controlled at a distance to pan left and right, tilt up and down, and zoom. They became known as PTZ cameras. The console contains all electrical interfaces, the control computer, and the software or hardware-based codec. Omni directional microphones are connected to the console, as well as a TV monitor with loudspeakers and/or a video projector.

There are several types of dedicated videoconferencing devices
Large group videoconferencing is non-portable, large, more expensive devices used for large rooms and auditoriums. Small group videoconferencing is non-portable or portable, smaller, less expensive devices used for small meeting rooms. Individual videoconferencing are usually portable devices, meant for single users, have fixed cameras, microphones and loudspeakers integrated into the console.

Desktop systems are add-ons (hardware boards or software codec) to normal PCs and laptops, transforming them into videoconferencing devices. A range of different cameras and microphones can be used with the codec, which contains the necessary codec and transmission interfaces. Most of the desktops systems work with the H.323 standard. Videoconferences carried out via dispersed PCs are also known as e-meetings. These can also be nonstandard, Microsoft Lync, Skype for Business, Google Hangouts, or Yahoo Messenger or standards based, Cisco Jabber.

WebRTC Platforms are video conferencing solutions that are not resident by using a software application but is available through the standard web browser. Solutions such as Adobe Connect and Cisco WebEx can be accessed by going to a URL sent by the meeting organizer and various degrees of security can be attached to the virtual "room". Often the user will be required to download a piece of software, called an "Add In" to enable the browser to access the local camera, microphone and establish a connection to the meeting.

Conferencing layers

The components within a Conferencing System can be divided up into several different layers: User Interface, Conference Control, Control or Signal Plane, and Media Plane.
User Interfaces (UI) can be either graphical or voice responsive. Many in the industry have encountered both types of interfaces, and normally graphical interfaces are encountered on a computer. User interfaces for conferencing have a number of different uses; they can be used for scheduling, setup, and making a video call. Through the user interface the administrator is able to control the other three layers of the system.
Conference Control performs resource allocation, management and routing. This layer along with the User Interface creates meetings (scheduled or unscheduled) or adds and removes participants from a conference.
Control (Signaling) Plane contains the stacks that signal different endpoints to create a call and/or a conference. Signals can be, but aren’t limited to, H.323 and Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) Protocols. These signals control incoming and outgoing connections as well as session parameters.
The Media Plane controls the audio and video mixing and streaming. This layer manages Real-Time Transport Protocols, User Datagram Packets (UDP) and Real-Time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP). The RTP and UDP normally carry information such the payload type which is the type of codec, frame rate, video size and many others. RTCP on the other hand acts as a quality control Protocol for detecting errors during streaming.

Multipoint videoconferencing

Simultaneous videoconferencing among three or more remote points is possible by means of a Multipoint Control Unit (MCU). This is a bridge that interconnects calls from several sources (in a similar way to the audio conference call). All parties call the MCU, or the MCU can also call the parties which are going to participate, in sequence. There are MCU bridges for IP and ISDN-based videoconferencing. There are MCUs which are pure software, and others which are a combination of hardware and software. An MCU is characterized according to the number of simultaneous calls it can handle, its ability to conduct transposing of data rates and protocols, and features such as Continuous Presence, in which multiple parties can be seen on-screen at once. MCUs can be stand-alone hardware devices, or they can be embedded into dedicated videoconferencing units.
The MCU consists of two logical components:
A single multipoint controller (MC), and
Multipoint Processors (MP) sometimes referred to as the mixer.

The MC controls the conferencing while it is active on the signaling plane, which is simply where the system manages conferencing creation, endpoint signaling and in-conferencing controls. This component negotiates parameters with every endpoint in the network and controls conferencing resources. While the MC controls resources and signaling negotiations, the MP operates on the media plane and receives media from each endpoint. The MP generates output streams from each endpoint and redirects the information to other endpoints in the conference.
Some systems are capable of multipoint conferencing with no MCU, stand-alone, embedded or otherwise. These use a standards-based H.323 technique known as "decentralized multipoint", where each station in a multipoint call exchanges video and audio directly with the other stations with no central "manager" or other bottleneck. The advantages of this technique are that the video and audio will generally be of higher quality because they don't have to be relayed through a central point. Also, users can make ad-hoc multipoint calls without any concern for the availability or control of an MCU. This added convenience and quality comes at the expense of some increased network bandwidth, because every station must transmit to every other station directly.

Videoconferencing modes

Videoconferencing systems use several common operating modes:
·         Voice-Activated Switch (VAS);
·         Continuous Presence.

In VAS mode, the MCU switches which endpoint can be seen by the other endpoints by the levels of one’s voice. If there are four people in a conference, the only one that will be seen in the conference is the site which is talking; the location with the loudest voice will be seen by the other participants.
Continuous Presence mode, displays multiple participants at the same time. The MP in this mode takes the streams from the different endpoints and puts them all together into a single video image. In this mode, the MCU normally sends the same type of images to all participants. Typically these types of images are called “layouts” and can vary depending on the number of participants in a conference.

Echo cancellation 

A fundamental feature of professional videoconferencing systems is Acoustic Echo Cancellation (AEC). Echo can be defined as the reflected source wave interference with new wave created by source. AEC is an algorithm which is able to detect when sounds or utterances reenter the audio input of the videoconferencing codec, which came from the audio output of the same system, after some time delay. If unchecked, this can lead to several problems including:

·         The remote party hearing their own voice coming back at them (usually significantly delayed)
·         Strong reverberation, which makes the voice channel useless, and
·         Howling created by feedback.

Echo cancellation is a processor-intensive task that usually works over a narrow range of sound delays.

Cloud-based video conferencing

Cloud-based video conferencing can be used without the hardware generally required by other video conferencing systems, and can be designed for use by SMEs, or larger international companies like Face book. Cloud-based systems can handle either 2D or 3D video broadcasting. Cloud-based systems can also implement mobile calls, VOIP, and other forms of video calling. They can also come with a video recording function to archive past meetings.

Technical and other issues

Computer security experts have shown that poorly configured or inadequately supervised videoconferencing system can permit an easy 'virtual' entry by computer hackers and criminals into company premises and corporate boardrooms, via their own videoconferencing systems. Some observers argue that three outstanding issues have prevented videoconferencing from becoming a standard form of communication, despite the ubiquity of videoconferencing-capable systems. These issues are:
Eye contact: Eye contact plays a large role in conversational turn-taking, perceived attention and intent, and other aspects of group communication. While traditional telephone conversations give no eye contact cues, many videoconferencing systems are arguably worse in that they provide an incorrect impression that the remote interlocutor is avoiding eye contact. Some tale-presence systems have cameras located in the screens that reduce the amount of parallax observed by the users. This issue is also being addressed through research that generates a synthetic image with eye contact using stereo reconstruction.
Telcordia Technologies, formerly Bell Communications Research, owns a patent for eye-to-eye videoconferencing using rear projection screens with the video camera behind it, evolved from a 1960s U.S. military system that provided videoconferencing services between the White House and various other government and military facilities. This technique eliminates the need for special cameras or image processing.
Appearance consciousness: A second psychological problem with videoconferencing is being on camera, with the video stream possibly even being recorded. The burden of presenting an acceptable on-screen appearance is not present in audio-only communication. Early studies by Alphonse Chapanis found that the addition of video actually impaired communication, possibly because of the consciousness of being on camera.
Signal latency: The information transport of digital signals in many steps needs time. In a telecommunicated conversation, an increased latency (time lag) larger than about 150–300 ms becomes noticeable and is soon observed as unnatural and distracting. Therefore, next to a stable large bandwidth, a small total round-trip time is another major technical requirement for the communication channel for interactive videoconferencing.
The issue of eye-contact may be solved with advancing technology, and presumably the issue of appearance consciousness will fade as people become accustomed to videoconferencing.

Impact on education

Videoconferencing provides students with the opportunity to learn by participating in two-way communication forums. Furthermore, teachers and lecturers worldwide can be brought to remote or otherwise isolated educational facilities. Students from diverse communities and backgrounds can come together to learn about one another, although language barriers will continue to persist. Such students are able to explore, communicate, analyze and share information and ideas with one another. Through videoconferencing, students can visit other parts of the world to speak with their peers, and visit museums and educational facilities. Such virtual field trips can provide enriched learning opportunities to students, especially those in geographically isolated locations, and to the economically disadvantaged. Small schools can use these technologies to pool resources and provide courses, such as in foreign languages, which could not otherwise be offered.
A few examples of benefits that videoconferencing can provide in campus environments include:
·         faculty members keeping in touch with classes while attending conferences;
·         guest lecturers brought in classes from other institutions;
·         researchers collaborating with colleagues at other institutions on a regular basis without
·         loss of time due to travel;
·         schools with multiple campuses collaborating and sharing professors;
·         schools from two separate nations engaging in cross-cultural exchanges;
·         faculty members participating in thesis defenses at other institutions;
·         administrators on tight schedules collaborating on budget preparation from different parts of campus;
·         faculty committee auditioning scholarship candidates;
·         researchers answering questions about grant proposals from agencies or review
·         committees;
·         student interviews with an employers in other cities, and
·         Tele seminars.
The intangible benefits include the facilitation of group work among geographically distant teammates and a stronger sense of community among business contacts, both within and between companies. In terms of group work, users can chat, transfer files, share programs, send and receive graphic data, and operate computers from remote locations. On a more personal level, the face-to-face connection adds non-verbal communication to the exchange and allows participants to develop a stronger sense of familiarity with individuals they may never actually meet in the same place.

4.5. LEARNING OBJECT

A learning object is "a collection of content items, practice items, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective". The term is credited to Wayne Hodgins when he created a working group in 1994 bearing the name though the concept was first described by Gerard in 1967. Learning objects go by many names, including content objects, chunks, educational objects, information objects, intelligent objects, knowledge bits, knowledge objects, learning components, media objects, reusable curriculum components, nuggets, reusable information objects, and reusable learning objects, testable reusable units of cognition, training components, and units of learning.
Learning objects offer a new conceptualization of the learning process: rather than the traditional "several hour chunk", they provide smaller, self-contained, re-usable units of learning.  They will typically have a number of different components, which range from descriptive data to information about rights and educational level. At their core, however, will be instructional content, practice, and assessment. A key issue is the use of metadata. Learning object design raises issues of portability, and of the object's relation to a broader learning management system. “The learning object remains an ill-defined concept, despite numerous and extensive discussion in the literature. At a very general level, a learning object could be defined as a pedagogical resource.
We suggest the following very global definition: A learning object is a resource. This definition is not very operational, but at least compatible with learning design models that usually distinguish between resources (of various sorts), services (tools) and learning activities (scenarios) as the building blocks for educational designs. Tools may of course include learning objects. Also, student productions may become learning objects and that idea goes beyond student projections of contents.  “It appears unlikely that any of existing definitions can serve to align communities with diverse perspectives around any common understanding leading to advancement in education and learning outcomes through technology integration.”  Instead of a single detailed definition, Churchill (2007) defines a learning object as “a learning object is a representation designed to afford uses in different educational contexts”. He then proposes a typology of several kinds of learning objects which then could be defined in more precise terms
Chiappe defined Learning Objects as: "A digital self-contained and reusable entity, with a clear educational purpose, with at least three internal and editable components: content, learning activities and elements of context. The learning objects must have an external structure of information to facilitate their identification, storage and retrieval: the metadata.  The following definitions focus on the relation between learning object and digital media. RLO-CETL, a British inter-university Learning Objects Center, defines "reusable learning objects" as "web-based interactive chunks of e-learning designed to explain a stand-alone learning objective". Daniel Rehak and Robin Mason define it as "a digitized entity which can be used, reused or referenced during technology supported learning".
Adapting a definition from the Wisconsin Online Resource Center, Robert J. Beck suggests that learning objects have the following key characteristics:
Learning objects are a new way of thinking about learning content. Traditionally, content comes in a several hour chunk. Learning objects are much smaller units of learning, typically ranging from 2 minutes to 15 minutes.
·         Are self-contained – each learning object can be taken independently
·         Are reusable – a single learning object may be used in multiple contexts for multiple purposes
·         Can be aggregated – learning objects can be grouped into larger collections of content, including traditional course structures
·         Are tagged with metadata – every learning object has descriptive information allowing it to be easily found by a search

Components

·         The following is a list of some of the types of information that may be included in a learning object
·         Life Cycle, including: version, status
·         Instructional Content, including: text, web pages, images, sound, video
·         Glossary of Terms, including: terms, definition, acronyms
·         Quizzes and Assessments, including: questions, answers
·         Rights, including: cost, copyrights, restrictions on Use
·         Relationships to Other Courses, including prerequisite courses
·         Educational Level, including: grade level, age range, typical learning time, and difficulty.
·         Typology as defined by Churchill (2007): presentation, practice, simulation, conceptual models, information, and contextual representation
One of the key issues in using learning objects is their identification by search engines or content management systems. This is usually facilitated by assigning descriptive learning object metadata. Just as a book in a library has a record in the card catalog, learning objects must also be tagged with metadata. The most important pieces of metadata typically associated with a learning object include:

·         objective: The educational objective the learning object is instructing
  • prerequisites: The list of skills (typically represented as objectives) which the learner must know before viewing the learning object
  • topic: Typically represented in a taxonomy, the topic the learning object is instructing
  • Interactivity: The Interaction Model of the learning object.
  • Technology requirements: The required system requirements to view the learning object.
  • Raw Content-The most fine-granular level consists of raw media elements including media types like text, audio, illustration, animation and others.
  • Reusable Information Object- From raw media elements, information objects are formed. They describe a certain procedure, process or structure, define a concept, present a fact, or provide an overview on some subject.
  • Reusable Learning Object- The third aggregation layer combines information objects circumscribed by a learning objective. The objects at this level are called learning objects.
Types of learning object
Presentation object 
Direct instruction and presentation resources designed with the intention to transmit specific subject matter. 
Practice object 
Drill and practice with feedback, educational game or representation that allows practice and learning of certain procedures
Simulation object
Representation of some real-life system or process
Conceptual model
Representation of a key concept or related concepts of subject matter
4.6. IHMC CONCEPT MAP TOOLS
What is concept map?

A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to organize and structure knowledge. A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to.  The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping. Concept maps define the ontology of computer systems, for example with the object-role modeling or Unified Modeling Language formalism.
A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or words in the same way that a sentence diagram represents the grammar of a sentence, a road map represents the locations of highways and towns, and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical appliance. In a concept map, each
 word or phrase connects to another, and links back to the original idea, word, or phrase. Concept maps are a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by revealing connections and helping students see how individual ideas form a larger whole. An example of the use of concept maps is provided in the context of learning about types of fuel.
Concept maps were developed to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences. A well-made concept map grows within a context frame defined by an explicit "focus question", while a mind map often has only branches radiating out from a central picture. Some research evidence suggests that the brain stores knowledge as productions (situation-response conditionals) that act on declarative memory content, which is also referred to as chunks or propositions. Because concept maps are constructed to reflect organization of the declarative memory system, they facilitate sense-making and meaningful learning on the part of individuals who make concept maps and those who use them.
A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to organize and structure knowledge. A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to.  The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping. Concept maps define the ontology of computer systems, for example with the object-role modeling or Unified Modeling Language formalism.
CMAP TOOLS
CMAP Tools is a project for creating concept maps. Developed by the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.The IHMC Cmap Tools program empowers users to construct, navigate, share and criticize knowledge models represented as concept maps. It allows users to, among many other features; construct their Cmaps in their personal computer. Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. They include Concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Words on the line, referred to as linking words or linking phrases, specify the relationship between the two concepts. 

BAIJU AYYAPPAN K
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN SOCIAL SCIENCE 
CUTEC CHALAKUDY 

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