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INTRODUCTION TO TEACHINIG SOCIAL SCIENCES

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO TEACHINIG SOCIAL SCIENCES
1.1. MEANING OF SOCIAL SCIENCE 
Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world around us. It tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help explain how our own society works - from the causes of unemployment or what helps economic growth, to how and why people vote, or what makes people happy.  It provides vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-governmental organizations and others.
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society.  It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a "social science". The main social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography and sociology. In a wider sense, social science also includes among its branches some fields in the humanities such as anthropology, archaeology, history, law and linguistics. The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original 'science of society', established in the 19th century. It is a branch of science that deals with the institutions and functioning of human society and with the interpersonal relationships of individuals as members of society. It is a science (as economics or political science) dealing with a particular phase or aspect of human society. The study of human society and of individual relationships in and to society.
A scholarly or scientific discipline that deals with such study, generally regarded as including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and history. Social science is the study of society and social behavior. A field of study, as history or economics, dealing with an aspect of society or forms of social activity. The study of human society and of individual relationships in and to society.  Any of various academic or scientific disciplines relating to such study, generally regarded as including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and history. It is the study of society and of the relationship of individual members within society, including economics, history, political science, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. The study of how groups of people behave, often in an effort to predict how they will behave in the future. The social sciences include economics, anthropology, sociology, political science, and aspects of psychology and history.
Social studies is the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence," as defined by the U.S. American National Council for the Social Studies. Social studies is most commonly recognized as the name of a course or set of courses taught in primary and secondary schools or elementary, middle, and secondary schools, but may also refer to the study of aspects of human society at certain post-secondary and tertiary schools around the globe.
Social studies vary greatly as a subject between countries and curricula and are not synonymous with sociology or social science; some courses borrow heavily from the social and political sciences, whereas others are created independently for schools. Social studies are the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence.
            Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.
In 1992, the Board of Directors of National Council for the Social Studies states that
Social studies are the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences
As a field of study, social studies may be more difficult to define than is a single discipline such as history or geography, precisely because it is multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary and because it is sometimes taught in one class (perhaps called "social studies") and sometimes in separate discipline-based classes within a department of social studies. Two main characteristics, however, distinguish social studies as a field of study: it is designed to promote civic competence; and it is integrative, incorporating many fields of endeavor.
Social studies programs reflect the changing nature of knowledge, fostering entirely new and highly integrated approaches to resolving issues of significance to humanity. Social studies programs to begin to understand, appreciate, and apply knowledge, processes, and attitudes from academic disciplines. Social studies programs help students construct a knowledge base and attitudes drawn from academic disciplines as specialized ways of viewing reality. Social studies programs have as a major purpose the promotion of civic competence-which is the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of students to be able to assume "the office of citizen" in our democratic republic. Social Studies are a field of study which deals with man, his relation with other men and his environment; its content is drawn from several social sciences. It is a course of study including anthropology, history, geography, economics, political science, sociology, law, civics, etc.

1.2 DEFINITION FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE
According to John U Michaelis, “the Social Studies are concerned with man and his interaction with his social and physical environment; they deal with human relationships; the central function of the social studies is identical with the central purpose of education – the development of democratic citizenship”.
National Council for the Social Studies defined Social Studies as “the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence".
James High (1967) defines social science as those bodies and study which recognize the simultaneous and mutual action of physical and non physical stimuli which produce social reaction
Charles Beard’s perception regarding it is social sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining (relates) to human affairs
Wesley (1937) says ‘those portion of the social sciences ……..selected for instructional purposes is called social studies
JF Forrester “ social studies as the very name suggests is the study of society and its chief aim is to help pupils to understand the world in which they have to leave and how it came to be so that they become a responsible citizens
The secondary education commission of the national educational association of USA defines “social studies are understood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organization and development of human society and to man as a member of social group.
American historical association – social sciences embrace the traditional disciplines which are concerned directly with man and society.
Bining & Bining (1952)- defines social sciences as the subjects that relate to the origin, organization, and development of human society especially to man in his association with other man
Moffatt (1955) Social studies had drawn its content from social sciences and contemporary life for instructional purposes in aiding youths to understand the growth of modern civilization. In short Social studies comprise the broadest possible investigation of human relationships.

1.3 NATURE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
The definitions given above just indicate the nature of social science as a subject of study. The real nature of this subject can be well understood only by further analyzing this definition. Such an analysis will yield to the following basic features or essential characteristics of social science, which may be considered as the nature of the subject.
a. A unique combination of various disciplines
            Social science can be treated, through ages, a separate subject it is a harmonious blending of various subjects like history, geography, political science, economics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, law, literature, art education, etc. In other words it draws inter related information from various disciplines or subjects of study and integrate these meaningfully so as to give a new insight into the exact nature of social life in its totality. If these are to be harmoniously blended the learner has to be guided trough reflective thinking, inquiry, hypothesis formation, verification, generalization, etc. In short he should master the strategy for learning to learn, leading to Meta cognition.
b. A study of human relationships
            It is the study of the man and other man and his environment. It deals with other actual and various issues of man and its solutions. It studies the web of relationship people. It deals with individuals for the purpose of securing additional light on the larger social relations, classes, groups, institutions, traditions, organizations etc. This web of relations makes a scientific analysis and synthesis leading to integration resulting in a holistic approach. 
c. A study of man’s development through ages
        It offers a comprehensive study of mans progress in each period, how he succeeded in his attempts, why he failed, what are the unique contribution of man who lived at various ages of human history for human development and like.  
d. A realistic course of study
       Social science provides the real life situation to the learner. Effective interpretation of these would necessitate intense study of many social problems, process and phenomena. The learner can imbibe many values like co operation and inter dependence. In this context the aims of social science can be equal to the aims of education.
e. It forms an important part of the core-curriculum
        Social science is considered as an irreducible minimum program essentially required for equipping man with the insights and skills that would enable him to lead a successful life. We cannot reduce anything from it since they are the essential minimum to all students. Even a learner who likes to go these awareness and knowledge for success in those fields also.
f. It includes commitment to action
Social science enables every learner to be an informed individual who uses his knowledge by participating actively and constructively in the affairs of the society. It through the socially significant nature of its content helps the student learn the process of individual and social action required for an informed citizen in a democracy. Under the responsible guidance of the social science teacher a learner may get opportunity to participate in various activities in the class, school, community etc. this commitment to action depends more on how it is learnt rather than what is learnt because action would emerge only from an integrated life style rather than from mere knowledge.    
g. Aims at preparing the learner for wholesome social living
         By understanding and analyzing the subject matter the learner imbibes some essential knowledge of his social environment. It may enrich his intellectual and social skills helpful to lead a purposeful and successful adult life. The study of social science gives the child a special and temporal understanding and awareness. Such an awareness too necessitates scientific approaches in learning.      

1.4 SCOPE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
Social science is a very vast subject. It is wide as the world and as long as the history of man. By the words of Jonsons (historian) history is everything that ever happened, we reminds that Social science is everything that ever happened.
 By scope we mean extent, variety, depth, breadth, and comprehensiveness of learning experiences which is possible through curriculum transaction. Thus the scope of social science is defined by range of content and experiences that are to be provided to the learner through teaching. Scholars like MICHALIS are of the opinion that the breadth of social science program should provide a variety of experiences so that Childs learning will be well rounded and well balanced. The scope of Social Studies is very vast and wide as wide as the world itself and as lengthy as the history of man. According to Michaelis “the breadth of social studies programme should provide for a variety of experiences so that the child’s learning will be well rounded and well balanced”.
The main scopes are as follows
1. Vast and wide as the world. It is as wide as the world and s long as the world. It is the study
of human relationships in areas such as:
·         People of one’s own nationality and people across the world.
·         People and various kinds of institutions.
·         People and Earth.
·         People and Time.
·         People and resources.
2. A functional study of Natural and Physical sciences and Fine Arts. Social Science – Natural
Science – Physical Science are inter related development, change, etc. in one field effect
the others
3. A study of current affairs.
4. A study leading to International Understanding.
5. Practical study of various resources.

What are social studies?
Social studies is a school subject that deals with the human relationship. Social studies are the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. social studies is most commonly recognized as the name of a course or set of courses taught in primary and secondary schools or elementary, middle, and secondary schools, but may also refer to the study of aspects of human society at certain post-secondary and tertiary schools around the globe. Social studies generally focus first on the local community and family.
The social studies curriculum becomes more subject -based and content-specific. . Social studies are the school mirror of the scholarly findings of social sciences. It is the development of basic skills concerned with social functions of human society. It is more concerned with the necessary skills of Childs understanding than with the subject matter itself. It is merely a school subject. Social studies as an integrated and synthesized whole with human relationship as its nucleus. The whole social environment of the student is covered in an integrated manner. Social studies are the practical part of the human affairs. Social studies are the simplified portion of social sciences. Social studies represent child centered approach. Social studies lays more stress on functional part. Social studies is a simplified and reorganized form of Social science
Social science vs. social studies
The terms social science and social studies are synonyms but the two are different in many respects.  The term social sciences and social studies are used interchangeably with regard to the social subjects taught in the secondary schools. The subjects known as the social studies in the primary and secondary schools function in a different manner from the social sciences taught in the colleges. The differentiation is not in kind but in approaches to problems discussed, focal goals envisaged, emphasis given to various aspects, the levels of difficulty permitted, scientific style of teaching and learning adopted during the course of curriculum transaction. At the same time the two are similar in certain respects. Both social science and social studies are concerned with the study of human relationships but in social science emphasis laid on research, investigation, discovery, and experimentation.  
Similarities
            Social Science and Social Studies are not only related generically. They also share common body of content. Both are related to society and have same aims and objectives. Both emphases on inculcating good qualities like truthfulness, sincerity, etc. of human being. Both helps to understand the various aspects of the society and utilize them. Both are must be accurate and reliable- only then can be useful. Both share a common body of content. Social studies and social sciences are similar generically. Social sciences are the soil and root of social studies. Social sciences are the parent discipline, the foundation or base of the ideas and generalizations dealt with social studies.  Both are focus of attention is man and his relationships with man as well as his environment which meets his various basic needs.
Both are described as the detailed study of mans progress through the ages. Both social sciences and social studies are related to society and have same aims and body of content. Both emphasizing and inculcating good qualities like truthfulness sincerity etc of human being. Both helps to understand the various aspects of the society and utilize them. Both social studies and social sciences must be accurate and reliable only then can they be useful.

Differences
      The focus and emphasis of both are different:- When a student studies geography as a social science, he has to focus his attention on the methods of geography, tools and concepts, etc.  While studying geography as social studies, he should focus attention on using ideas and concepts from geography, to understand man, how his efforts to control his environment have led to a better life, how various geographical factors influence his life, etc.

      Social Sciences represent an adult approach, while the social studies represent a child-approach: Social sciences are to be taught at the high school and college level. Social Studies are simplified portions of social sciences to be taught at primary level.

      Social sciences are the theory part of human affairs; social studies are the practice part of human affairs: Social sciences are large bodies of organized and authentic knowledge representing human affairs. While social studies give an insight into various aspects of man and society.
The social sciences are far larger than the social studies:  The purpose of the social sciences is to find out new truth about human relationships; the purpose of the social studies is to guide adolescents in their learning of selected portions of what has been discovered in social sciences.
      In social sciences, social utility is the primary object; in social studies instructional utility is the primary object.
                  Social sciences are the part of cultural of knowledge having direct bearing on man’s activities in any field, Social studies offers learning situation and insight. Social sciences are those areas of knowledge dealing with man and society in the development of civilization. Social studies had drawn its content from social sciences and contemporary life for instructional purposes in aiding youths to understand the growth of modern civilization. Social sciences are that part of cultural knowledge having direct bearing of mans activities in any field
                  Social studies offer learning situation and insight in to all knowledge. The purpose of social sciences is to find out new truths about human relationships. The purpose of social studies is to guide the students in their learning of selected portion of what has been discovered in social sciences. In social sciences social utility is the primary objective but in social studies instructional utility is the primary objective. Social sciences are concerned with the investigation of a diversity of human relations and need considerably more data than it is included in the social studies. Social studies are comparatively narrow and general. Social sciences are very vast and deep, specific related as well as wholistic. Social studies help the learners in the process of socialization, while social sciences are useful to develop the ability for critical and logical thinking and for applying the acquired knowledge and skills in unfamiliar situations. Social studies are helpful to develop a sense of democratic citizenship and social consciousness. Social sciences help to develop deeper insights in to human affairs. Social studies provide a clear understanding of the important concepts. Social sciences help the learners to develop the ability to find out new truths about human relationships and to analyze and reflect upon all aspects studied

1.5 EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AS A SUBJECT
Social science begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650, which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". The history of the social sciences has origin in the common stock of Western philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in the early 19th century with the positivist philosophy of science. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and was influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial revolution and the French revolution. The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw "social science" first used as a distinct conceptual field.
Al-Biruni (973–1048) wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) worked in areas of demography, historiography, the philosophy of history,  sociology and economics. He is best known for his Muqaddimah. These are the works of early thought of social science
Modern period
Near the Renaissance, which began around the 14th century, Buridanus and Oresmius wrote on money. In the 15th century St. Atonine of Florence wrote of a comprehensive economic process. In the 16th century Leonard de Leys (Lessius), Juan de Lego, and particularly Luis Molina wrote on economic topics. These writers focused on explaining property as something for "public good".
Representative figures of the 17th century include David Hartley, Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Samuel von Putendorf. Thomas Hobbes argued that deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework, and hence his Leviathan was a scientific description of a political commonwealth. Significant contributions to the social sciences were made in Medieval Islamic civilization. The term "social science" first appeared in the 1824 book An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth by William Thompson (1775–1833). Auguste Comte (1797–1857) argued that ideas pass through three rising stages, theological, philosophical and scientific. He defined the difference as the first being rooted in assumption, the second in critical thinking, and the third in positive observation. Karl Marx was one of the first writers to claim that his methods of research represented a scientific view of history in this model.
In the 18th century, social science was called moral philosophy, as contrasted from natural philosophy and mathematics, and included the study of natural theology, natural ethics, natural jurisprudence, and policy ("police"), which included economics and finance ("revenue"). Pure philosophy, logic, literature, and history were outside these two categories. Adam Smith was a professor of moral philosophy, and he was taught by Francis Hutcheson. Figures of the time included François Quesnay, Rousseau, Giambattista Vico, William Godwin, Gabriel Bonnet de Mably, and Andre Morellet. The Encyclopédie of the time contained various works on the social sciences.
Sociology was established by Comte in 1838. He had earlier used the term "social physics", but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavored to unify history, psychology and economics through the scientific understanding of the social realm. Writing shortly after the malaise of the French Revolution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in the progression of human understanding.
This unity of science as descriptive remains in the time of Thomas Hobbes who argued that deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework, and hence his Leviathan was a scientific description of a political commonwealth. What would happen within decades of his work was a revolution in what constituted "science", particularly the work of Isaac Newton in physics. Newton, by revolutionizing what was then called "natural philosophy", changed the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific".In the realm of other disciplines, this created a pressure to express ideas in the form of mathematical relationships. Such relationships, called "Laws" after the usage of the time (see philosophy of science) became the model which other disciplines would emulate.

19th century development    
With the late 19th century, attempts to apply equations to statements about human behavior became increasingly common. Among the first were the "Laws" of philology, which attempted to map the change over time of sounds in a language. It was with the work of Charles Darwin that the descriptive version of social theory received another shock. Biology had, seemingly, resisted mathematical study, and yet the theory of natural selection and the implied idea of genetic inheritance—later found to have been enunciated by Gregor Mendel, seemed to point in the direction of a scientific biology based, like physics and chemistry, on mathematical relationships.
The concept of social studies was launched about 100 years ago. The term social studies originally tended to encompasses topical studies related to understanding and living in society, that were not parts of usual history, geography or political economy offerings. Unfortunately around 1900 as still true in many foreign counties the social studies were often designed as subjects for the non college bound pupils. In 1890 the national association appointed its committee often which constituted the beginning of modern secondary education in America. While the historians and other learned groups were concentrating on college preparation as the main objective of high school, Dewy, Kilpatric, Rug, and Historians like Bread and Robinson – founders of new education – were thinking of education for the needs of life as a prime goal of secondary education. From this group a whole complex of social studies experts arose emphasizing methodology of teaching rather than liberal arts education.
They came to reorganize the potential of conferring multi disciplinary coursed units, and lessons in social issues.  Gradually social science becomes identified with the new academic study of professional education with its own professional organization, the national council for social studies as a branch of National Education Association. The text books and course guides began reflect these ideas and the social studies were on their way.  The NEA on the reorganization of secondary education made a significant contribution toward furthering the social studies through its 1918 report.  But many secondary school teachers naturally continued to offer separate disciplinary centered courses, but these become increasingly enriched through the use of broad field approach. Gradually the traditional compartmentalized approach of social science such as history, geography etc are replaced in many forward looking schools of thoughts. In course of time welsley (1937) one of the founders of this field gives a definition; social studies is, what social science simplified for pedagogical purposes.
Social science has not been included in the general secondary curriculum for much more than half a century. It is possible among living man to find those who can remember when history as only representative of social sciences was not even a standard inclusion in the secondary course of study. Since the social science is little more than one hundred years old their reflection in social studies could not have been found in secondary schools of that time.    
20th century development 
In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently, for example in an increasingly statistical view of biology. The first thinkers to attempt to combine inquiry of the type they saw in Darwin with exploration of human relationships, which, evolutionary theory implied, would be based on selective forces, were Freud in Austria and William James in the United States. Freud's theory of the functioning of the mind, and James' work on experimental psychology would have enormous impact on those that followed. Freud, in particular, created a framework which would appeal not only to those studying psychology, but artists and writers as well.
Around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology. In this age the subject social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of interacting entities.
One of the most persuasive advocates for the view of scientific treatment of philosophy would be John Dewey (1859–1952). He began, as Marx did, in an attempt to weld Hegelian idealism and logic to experimental science, for example in his Psychology of 1887. However, he abandoned Hegelian constructs. Influenced by both Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, he joined the movement in America called pragmatism. He then formulated his basic doctrine, enunciated in essays such as "The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy" (1910).
This idea, based on his theory of how organisms respond, states that there are three phases to the process of inquiry:
1.      Problematic Situation, where the typical response is inadequate.
2.      Isolation of Data or subject matter.
3.      Reflective, which is tested empirically.
With the rise of the idea of quantitative measurement in the physical sciences, for example Lord Rutherford's famous maxim that any knowledge that one cannot measure numerically "is a poor sort of knowledge", the stage was set for the conception of the humanities as being precursors to "social science."
This change was not, and is not, without its detractors, both inside of academia and outside. The range of critiques begin from those who believe that the physical sciences are qualitatively different from social sciences, through those who do not believe in statistical science of any kind, through those who disagree with the methodology and kinds of conclusion of social science, to those who believe the entire framework of scientificizing these disciplines is mostly from a desire for prestige.
In 1924, prominent social scientists established the Pi Gamma Mu honor society for the social sciences. Among its key objectives were to promote interdisciplinary cooperation and develop an integrated theory of human personality and organization. Toward these ends, a journal for interdisciplinary scholarship in the various social sciences and lectureship grants were established.
Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical speculation was avoided. Since the mid-20th century, the term "social science" has come to refer more generally, not just to sociology, but to all those disciplines which analyze society and culture; from anthropology to linguistics to media studies. Auguste Comte used the term "science sociale" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social physics.
Interwar period
Theodore Porter argued in The Rise of Statistical Thinking that the effort to provide a synthetic social science is a matter of both administration and discovery combined, and that the rise of social science was, therefore, marked by both pragmatic needs as much as by theoretical purity. An example of this is the rise of the concept of Intelligence Quotient, or IQ. It is unclear precisely what is being measured by IQ, but the measurement is useful in that it predicts success in various endeavors.
The rise of industrialism had created a series of social, economic, and political problems, particularly in managing supply and demand in their political economy, the management of resources for military and developmental use, the creation of mass education systems to train individuals in symbolic reasoning and problems in managing the effects of industrialization itself. The perceived senselessness of the "Great War" as it was then called, of 1914–18, now called World War I, based in what were perceived to be "emotional" and "irrational" decisions, provided an immediate impetus for a form of decision making that was more "scientific" and easier to manage. Simply put, to manage the new multi-national enterprises, private and governmental, required more data. More data required a means of reducing it to information upon which to make decisions. Numbers and charts could be interpreted more quickly and moved more efficiently than long texts. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it have made many of the so-called hard sciences dependent on social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social studies of medicine, neuropsychology, and bio economics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences.
In the 1930s this new model of managing decision making became cemented with the New Deal in the US, and in Europe with the increasing need to manage industrial production and governmental affairs. Institutions such as The New School for Social Research, International Institute of Social History, and departments of "social research" at prestigious universities were meant to fill the growing demand for individuals who could quantify human interactions and produce models for decision making on this basis.
Coupled with this pragmatic need was the belief that the clarity and simplicity of mathematical expression avoided systematic errors of holistic thinking and logic rooted in traditional argument. This trend, part of the larger movement known as modernism provided the rhetorical edge for the expansion of social sciences.

New social studies
The agonies of the depression years and then World War II greatly limited educational innovations. However the post war society began to be more conscious of the necessity for universal proficiency in basic school subjects. Between 1950 and 1960 there seems to be emerging a new synthesis of educational thought which in turn bids fair to produce a satisfactory curriculum to meet the tremendous task of educating the coming millions of school students. In spite of growing demands from the impact of worldwide problems and disaffection the elementary school particularly seemed to want to shy away from these harsh realities. Following the appearance of the Soviet Sputnik, substantial funds were available for curriculum development in capital countries. The HILDA TABA program, Our Working World- Man a Course of a Study, social science lab units and numerous other offerings become available for elementary teachers during this period.
The forgoing programmes in recent years have been part of what is labeled the new social studies. These were highly publicized in the last few decades in the thousands of teacher education institutes as learners once again attempted to move social studies instruction from the mere imparting of subject matter. The new social studies aims to lead boys and girls to find excitement and motion in the process of social education via exploration inquiry and discovery.
They are also concerned with using timely content that students perceive as being relevant. But the major emphasis on helping pupils to develop the competencies and attitudes essential for citizen in a free society. Citizen who will with and be able to maintain and extent the fundamental values for our way of life. Inspite of this however today thousands of schools and teachers still continue to overlook the prime potential of the social studies in enabling children and youth to learn how to live in a society.
 

Contemporary developments of social science

There continues to be little movement toward consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories which, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks
According to Harry Elmer Barnes, the social sciences were created by the industrial revolution, which he describes as ‘the greatest transformation in the history of humanity’. This revolution ‘broke down the foundations of the previous social system’ and ‘out of the confusion, as an aid in solving the newly created social problems,… to reconstruct the disintegrating social order’

1.6 NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT 
Any society takes care of its young through the home and the school. It is through its schools that a society prepares its future citizens. In a developing country like ours, this responsibility of the school is greater, because the school should not only transmit from one generation to the next, our tradition and culture, but help in the process of modernization. A study of social science helps us to develop a broad, rational, national, and secular outlook. The education system must make its contribution to the development of habits, attitudes and qualities of character which will enable its citizens and to bear worthily the responsibilities of democratic citizens and to counteract all those fissiparous tendencies which hider the emergence of a broad national and secular outlook.
This statement presents a vision of social studies teaching and learning needed to achieve the levels of civic efficacy that the nation requires of its citizens. The emphasis is on principles of teaching and learning that have enduring applicability across grade levels, social studies core content areas, and scope-and-sequence arrangements. These principles are summarized in this declaration: Teaching and learning in social studies are powerful when they are meaningful, integrative, value-based, challenging, and active.
The vital task of preparing students to become citizens in a democracy is complex. The social studies disciplines are diverse, encompassing an expansive range of potential content. This content engages students in a comprehensive process of confronting multiple dilemmas, and encourages students to speculate, think critically, and make personal and civic decisions based on information from multiple perspectives.
A powerful and rigorous social studies curriculum provides strategies and activities that engage students with significant ideas, and encourages them to connect what they are learning to their prior knowledge and to current issues, to think critically and creatively about what they are learning, and to apply that learning to authentic situations.
In the olden days the child learnt about interpersonal relationship of his group at his home where he was provided with rich activities to know about the relationship that existed between him and his environments. All these experiences were enough to provide him with the social family education. With the advancement of science and technology we find more of individual life and the joint family system has almost disappeared. Thus the child deprived of social education at home. This function providing the social education is now expected to be perfumed by schools. To provide such asocial education school curriculum must include material that would acquaint the child with the best of the traditions in society existed in the past. This should prepare him to deal intelligently solve the every problems of the daily life situations and future.
Teaching social studies powerfully and authentically begins with a deep knowledge and understanding of the subject and its unique goals. Social studies programs prepare students to identify, understand, and work to solve the challenges facing our diverse nation in an increasingly interdependent world. Education for citizenship should help students acquire and learn to use the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that will prepare them to be competent and responsible citizens throughout their lives. Competent and responsible citizens are informed and thoughtful, participate in their communities, are involved politically, and exhibit moral and civic virtues.
With the independence in 1947 we started with the task of building a socialistic, democratic society, in such a society we expect equal opportunity of work to success for even the humblest individual along with the most powerful and initial. This is a concept of a welfare state. To achieve this educational system is expected to concentrate on providing the future citizens with certain attitudes and skills. The school should produce such citizens who are well informed and discriminating patriots and democrats without caste, class and linguistic basis. Thus our previous concept the welfare state can be achieved to a great extent by introducing social science in our school curriculum.  
Through social science we should provide the young child with the maximum of information about the social environmental realities of the past. Previously these environmental realities were taught under separate subjects such as history, geography, economics, etc and these subjects were overcrowded with various details which have become irrelevant and burdensome in the present day society. Due to these drawbacks the social science emerged as a new field of studies and provides maximum score of information’s about the past.
At present the aim of our education system is to ensure complete national integration and establish a truly democratic socialistic society. It is a gigantic task and we have to tackle such a difficult problem, but we have a glorious past with a remarkable tradition of peace, tolerance and assimilation. The panacea for all our problems lies in recapturing the ancient spirit. We required taking living fire from the past and constantly recreating traditions. It can be achieved through an integrated course of social studies in which an attempt is made to interpret the past in the context of present day situations.  
MORE NEEDS  
Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are meaningful
Meaningful social studies builds curriculum networks of knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes that are structured around enduring understandings, essential questions, important ideas, and goals.
Key concepts and themes are developed in depth. The most effective social studies teachers do not diffuse their efforts by covering too many topics superficially. Breadth is important, but deep and thoughtful understanding is essential to prepare students for the issues of twenty-first century citizenship.
Skills necessary to help our students thrive in a world of continuous and accelerating change are emphasized. These include discipline-based literacy, multi-disciplinary awareness, information gathering and analysis, inquiry and critical thinking, communication, data analysis and the prudent use of twenty-first century media and technology. Skills are embedded throughout meaningful social studies lessons, rather than added on at the end.
Teachers are reflective in planning, implementing, and assessing meaningful curriculum. Reflective teachers are well informed about the nature and purposes of social studies, have a continually growing understanding of the disciplines that they teach, and keep up with pedagogical developments in the field of social studies.
Meaningful curriculum includes extensive and reflective study of the United States and other nations’ histories, religions, and cultures.

Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are integrative
The subjects that comprise social studies--i.e., history, economics, geography, political science, sociology, anthropology, archaeology and psychology--are rich, interrelated disciplines, each critical to the background of thoughtful citizens. The social studies curriculum is integrative, addressing the totality of human experience over time and space, connecting with the past, linked to the present, and looking ahead to the future. Focusing on the core social studies disciplines, it includes materials drawn from the arts, sciences, and humanities, from current events, from local examples and from students’ own lives.
Each of the social studies disciplines themselves integrates content from the others. Units and lessons can draw on ideas from economics, geography, history, political science, and sociology to increase understanding of an event or concept. Each disciplined pursuit demands a level of sensitivity and awareness to content drawn from the arts, humanities, and sciences.
Powerful social studies teaching combines elements of all the disciplines as it provides opportunities for students to conduct inquiry, develop and display data, synthesize findings, and make judgments.
Social studies teaching and learning requires effective use of technology, communication, and reading/writing skills that add important dimensions to students’ learning.

Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are value-based
Social studies teachers recognize that students do not become responsible, participating citizens automatically. The values embodied in our democratic form of government, with its commitment to justice, equality, and freedom of thought and speech, are reflected in social studies classroom practice.
Social studies teachers develop awareness of their own values and how those values influence their teaching. They assess their teaching from multiple perspectives and, when appropriate, adjust it to achieve a better balance.
Students are made aware of potential policy implications and taught to think critically and make decisions about a variety of issues, modeling the choices they will make as adult citizens
Learn to assess the merits of competing arguments, and make reasoned decisions that include consideration of the values within alternative policy recommendations.
Through discussions, debates, the use of authentic documents, simulations, research, and other occasions for critical thinking and decision making, students learn to apply value-based reasoning when addressing problems and issues.
Students engage in experiences that develop fair-mindedness, and encourage recognition and serious consideration of opposing points of view, respect for well-supported positions, sensitivity to cultural similarities and differences, and a commitment to individual and social responsibility.

Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are challenging
Student work should reflect a balance between retrieval and recitation of content and a thoughtful examination of concepts in order to provide intellectual challenges. The teacher must explain and model intellectual standards expected of students. These include, but are not limited to: clarity, precision, completeness, depth, relevance, and fairness.
Challenging social studies instruction makes use of regular writing and the analysis of various types of documents, such as primary and secondary sources, graphs, charts, and data banks. It includes sources from the arts, humanities, and sciences, substantive conversation, and disciplined inquiry.
Disciplined inquiry, in turn, includes the teaching of sophisticated concepts and ideas, and in-depth investigation of fewer rather than more topics, with deep processing and detailed study of each topic.
Challenging social studies includes the rigorous teaching of the core disciplines as influential and continually growing tools for inquiry.

Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are active
Active lessons require students to process and think about what they are learning. There is a profound difference between learning about the actions and conclusions of others and reasoning one’s way toward those conclusions. Active learning is not just “hands-on,” it is “minds-on.”
Students work individually and collaboratively, using rich and varied sources, to reach understandings, make decisions, discuss issues and solve problems.
Student construction of meaning is facilitated by clear explanation, modeling, and interactive discourse. Explanation and modeling from the teacher are important, as are student opportunities to ask and answer questions, discuss or debate implications, and participate in compelling projects that call for critical thinking.
Powerful social studies teachers develop and/or expand repertoires of engaging, thoughtful teaching strategies for lessons that allow students to analyze content in a variety of learning modes.
The main reason why it is important to study the social sciences is because a knowledge of the social sciences can help us improve our societies. When we study the social sciences, we are studying how people put their societies together and we are looking at the impacts of their decisions about how their societies should be run.  By studying these things, we are becoming better informed about how societies should be put together.

Social scientists help us imagine alternative futures
Social science can open up debate and give us a say in shaping our collective future. The social sciences developed as a field of study during the nineteenth century. Social science helps the people understand the consequences and application of the new technologies of the age, such as steam power. The growth of railways and factories not only transformed the economy and the world of work, but also changed forever the way people organized their family lives and leisure. Today nanotechnology and advances in medical research will have a significant impact on the way we live. They present us with a bewildering range of ethical, legal and social issues. But it isn’t enough to rely on the scientists. We also need social scientists to analyze and critique what is going on. That way we will make informed choices that shape the future

Social science can help us make sense of our finances.
Social science is not just important for the future but for what’s happening now.
 We all resent paying to withdraw our money from cash machines. Charges can amount to £120 per year. Social scientists working on behalf of the Runnymede Trust found that this doesn’t just this depend on where we live, but that black and minority ethnic people are more likely to live in areas where they are forced to pay. This put pressure on banks to ensure we all have access to machines that don’t charge.  A range of social scientists not just economists but also psychologists, sociologists and political scientists, for example - can help us understand the economic crisis and weigh up decisions we make for ourselves and those which governments make on our behalf. Without this kind of analysis we may feel like pawns in a global game of chess. With the knowledge and understanding that social science offers us, we will feel empowered to act for ourselves, and to influence decisions being made on our behalf.

Social scientists contribute to our health and well-being.
From sports sociologists to public health experts, from those interpreting medical statistics to those evaluating policies for our care in old age, social scientists are working hard to make sure that our health, leisure and social care services work to best effect. Social geographers at the University of Sheffield, for example, have shown that those of us who don’t follow eating advice are not simply weak-willed or ignorant. Our eating habits are influenced by a whole range of circumstances. Some apparently unhealthy choices may seem rational: if the person doing the shopping knows that others will simply not eat the healthy option and it will just go to waste, they may simply not buy it. So it is no good just giving people a booklet on healthy eating. Effective nutritional advice needs to be tailored to people’s everyday lives and contexts.
Social science might save your life.

Psychologists at the University of Liverpool spent time in a steel factory to work out what needs doing to create a safer environment. Accidents at work happen even in the best regulated companies that provide staff training and take all necessary precautions. A top-down imposed safety regime simply doesn’t work. It’s when people see unsafe work practices as unacceptable and take decisions as teams that workplaces become safer. Employers need to see people as individuals who take their lead from those with whom they identify. These principles have also been shown to work in crowd control. When those responsible for crowd management at football matches are trained in techniques which take this into account, there’s virtually no trouble.

Social science can make your neighborhood safer 
One common myth is that if you take measures to reduce crime in one neighborhood the criminals simply move on, leading to increased crime in another area. Sociologists at Nottingham Trent University worked closely with police to reduce crime through a method involving scanning for crime patterns. They were able to identify patterns that regular police work had not picked up, so avoiding guess work and lost time. A technique called situational crime prevention developed by the same team is now regularly used by the police, working with the public and private sectors to prevent crime. Together they make things more difficult for would-be criminals. For example, in one area there was a serious problem of lead being stolen from community building roofs? By working with dealers in the scrap metal market, and persuading them to keep records, it then became too risky to buy what might be stolen lead.

We needs social scientists as public intellectuals
British society is sometimes said to be anti-intellectual. Yet in our fast changing world, there is a place for the social scientist as public intellectual. This doesn’t have to be a succession of boring grey talking heads, such as you can find on French TV any night. That’s enough to cause anyone to start channel surfing. Social scientists have a duty to make their work interesting and engaging to the rest of us. They need to explain not only why social science is relevant but do it in a compelling way. Then we will want to listen, read and find out more.
Perhaps more social scientists will have to become active listeners, talking more often to the public, each other and to scientists. Then we can get all the disciplines around the table together. In a knowledge-based world, we need people who can integrate a variety of different types of knowledge, and that come from different intellectual roots and from a range of institutions to work together.

Social science can improve our children’s lives and education.
All societies and all governments want to show they are doing the best for children. Yet too often education reform seems to take place without regard for the best interests of the learners. Education research shows that many parents, particularly parents of younger children, are more concerned that their children enjoy school, than that they are academic stars. By working with students of all ages to understand their perspectives on schooling, researchers at the universities of Cambridge and Leeds have discovered new insights into what makes effective schools, and what makes for effective school leadership. We just need to listen to children, provide structured opportunities for them to give their views, and prepare adults to really listen. Today even OF STED, the school inspection service, has to listen to children’s viewpoints.
Social science can change the world for the better 
We can generally agree that world needs to be a safer place where all people can enjoy basic dignity and human rights. This is the case even when we can’t always agree on what we should do to make this happen. Social scientists working in interdisciplinary teams have made their mark in the area of human welfare and development. They are concerned with the social and economic advancement of humanity at large. They work with government institutions, UN organizations, social services, funding agencies, and with the media.
They are influencing the work of strategists, planners, teachers and programme officers in developing and growing economies, like India, to influence development so that it impacts on the lives of the poorest members of society. For example, social scientists from the Delhi
School of Economics are cooperating with colleagues at SOAS, University of London to explore the impact of legislation in India to guarantee minimum wages for rural unskilled manual labourers on the loves of women. They found the new law provided opportunities for some women to become wage earners where none had existed before, reducing the risk of hunger and the chances of avoiding hazardous work. But they also identified barriers to women benefitting from the changes, including harassment at the worksite. Those working in development studies are then able to support women’s ability to benefit by looking for creative solutions to such problems.
 Social science can broaden your horizons
For debates about feminism, peace, ecology, social movements, and much more, social science offers each of us new perspectives and new ways of understanding. Whether your idea of relaxation is visiting a museum, watching soaps, or chatting online, social science encourages a fresh look at our everyday activities and culture. Social scientists at the University of Leicester are making an impact on museums across the world, with the goal of making them more inclusive, abler to challenge prejudices, inspire learning and be more relevant in contemporary society. One example is their work with the Gallery of Modern Art in Glasgow to involve local communities and international visitors alike in engaging with exhibitions on a range of social justice issues from sectarianism to gay rights, through programmes including arts workshops and residencies.

We needs social science to guarantee our democracy 
Social science offers multiple perspectives on society, informs social policy and supports us in holding our politicians and our media to account. The Centre for the Study of Global Media and Democracy at Goldsmith’s College, London is monitoring how transformation from traditional to digital media is examining the move away from traditional journalism and politics to where we as citizens try to be community journalists, presenting our own accounts on-line. The work brings together specialists in media and communications, sociology and politics. Individual citizens may feel empowered by this but there are risks in turning away from traditional journalism, including fewer opportunities for in-depth analysis and critique of powerful interests. This work by social scientists is critical in protecting a modern and transparent democracy. Just think what might happen without it

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
Analysis of the points of view quoted above will bring out the following main significance of social science.

Social science is a compound rather than a mixture
          Social science is a compound rather than mixtures were the ingredients lose their identity and something emerges out of the combination. It differs from teaching of history, geography, economics, civics etc, in the same sense the in which the taste of ice cream would differ from that of its ingredients like sugar, milk etc. tasted in isolation. In this form the subject areas which constitute it acquire a new meaning and assume a new dimension with man at the centre of activity.
The central theme of social science is socio- economic and occupational usefulness and social living
          The central theme of social science is socio- economic and occupational usefulness and the main object is to prepare the child for wholesome social living. In the process of learning social science, the child begins to appreciate the geographical elements of his own environment. He begins to understand how the gift of nature is processed to produce goods for serving the various needs of man. He gets an idea of the social and cultural life in different parts of the country as well as of some different ways of living in certain parts of the world. He also gets opportunities to develop socially desirable habits attitudes values, besides becoming broadly acquainted with the functioning of political and social institutions.

The subject of social science is web of relationships that develop between the people and their environment
           The subject of social science is web of relationships that develop between and among people and those that develop between people and their environment. It deals with individuals only incidentally and that for the purpose of securing additional light on the larger social realities, classless, groups, institutions, traditions and organizations receive prominence and recognition. Those intellectual and social skills and attitudes are developed which are relevant to the understanding of some aspects of social living.  Social science seeks to desirable and analyzes these effects. These inter relationships constitute the content of social science.
Social studies is a realistic course
         Real life situations are laboratories of social science in which the meaning of such social science concepts as interaction, co operation and inter dependence and the problems and process man faces as he carries on his basic activities are studied.

Social science is a broad and composite area
        Social studies draws its information from social science is a broad and composite area which unfold gradually the total environment of the student with special reference to physical, social and cultural elements. It helps in the study of relations and inter relations – historical, geographical and local and so provides to the young useful knowledge.

Social science is a human study
       In the social science lessons the thoughts of the teacher and the students are always focused on folks not on technical process or the machines. It deals with the subjects like human studies and humanism. These human studies develop the qualities of human being for the development of wellbeing of the society.

The concept of social science includes action
       The most informed individual may not use his knowledge by participating constructively and actively in the affairs of the society.  Social science through its content and teaching methods help the student learn the process of individual and group action required of citizens in a democracy. Through participation in class, school and community activities under the responsible guidance of the teacher, students learn how a democratic society functions. They can learn the skills and behavior patterns required and thus develop a commitment to democratic means of solving problems.

1.8 SOCIAL STUDIES AS A CORE SUBJECT
           
What is core curriculum?
        Core curriculum is a relatively new concept in curriculum planning evolved as a part of the efforts of the forward looking educators to develop a more functional and significant program of general education  for all youth. The concept of core curriculum originate around the turn of the 19th century as a part against the fragmentation and piecemeal learning accumulated from separate subjects. To achieve coherence of the total curriculum a unifying core of studies was proposed to which the other subjects would be related and subordinated. On the basis of late 1920’s radical progressivist movement it is assumed that the curriculum should foster individual development and democratic social competence, so they proposed a core curriculum of studies that would centre a common individual and social needs.  
            As Faunce and Bossing define that, the core curriculum designates those learning experience that are fundamental for all learners because they derive from ,our common individual drives or needs, our civic and social needs, as participating members of a democratic society. Wesley writing about core curriculum says, core curriculum is that form of school program which is required of all students on the assumption that it provides for modal needs, it is closely related to common learning and general education.
            To begin with the core or universally required component of any so called core curriculum is intended to provide common learning or general education for all students. That is, it constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches the common concept skills, and attitudes needed by all individuals for effective functioning of society. This common learning future of core curriculum has led to the terms sometimes being used to refer to any program of general education. Core curriculum in fact is indented to provide first the irreducible minimum regarded as necessary for everyone to be able to live satisfactorily in a modern society. It prepares the student for living it does not prepare him to make a living. It will equip the student with a foundational knowledge for social living. A core design shows the required core of general studies surrounded by several varieties of specialized optional courses. On the basis of this usage of the term core, there is very little that can be assumed about the goals, content and organization of a core curriculum. Core subject means the subject required by everybody regardless of specialization. Core subject provides knowledge and learning experiences that are fundamental for all learners, in other words it is required for all. It will equip the student with the foundational knowledge for social living. It is similar for every one whatever future place in life the student chooses to take. The idea is to let a person become a good human being first and a good technician, scientist, engineer, doctor, artist etc later.
            Social studies as a core subject equip students with clear knowledge of social living. It is not only aim to enable him to adjust himself but also to improve his social, cultural and economic environment in active co operation with others. It is satisfies minimum needs of every learners. It serve as an introduction to more specialized studies beyond school classes.
            According to pattel committee a general broad based education should be provided up to the end of the stage of compulsory education, so that children leaving school may acquire knowledge of our heritage and culture are enabled to exercise their rights as citizens in a responsible manner. Patel committee recommends that the content of courses of individual subjects of learning must be so designed as to keep the quantum of knowledge to the minimum essential for the understanding of the subject.

Definition of core curriculum
A Core Academic Subject is one where students receive core content credit. A core subject is compulsory, and must be completed in order to meet the requirements of your course.
The core curriculum designates those learning experience that are fundamental for all learners because they derive from (1) our common individual derives or needs, and (2) our civic and social needs as participating members of a democratic society – Faunce and Bossing 
Core curriculum is that from of school program which is required of all students on the assumption that it provides for modal needs. It is closely related to common learning and general education – E.B.Wesley
Meaning of core curriculum
Core curriculum seeks to provide the irreducible minimum regards as necessary for everyone to be able to live satisfactory in a modern society. It prepares the students for living not to make a living. It equips the student with the fundamental knowledge for social living. Common learning’s and experience are emphasized in the core curriculum to make it possible for the democratic way living to thrive
The concept of core curriculum originated around the turn of this century as a reaction against the fragmentation and the peace learning accumulated from separate subjects. To achieve coherence of the total curriculum a unifying core studies was proposed. In the late 1920’s a progressive movement evolved for the establishment of core curriculum. On the assumption that the curriculum should foster the individual development and democratic social competence. The progressivism proposed a core curriculum of studies that would centre on common individual and social needs. To begin with the core component any so called curriculum is indented to provide common learning or general education for all students. It constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches the common concept of skills and attitudes needed by all individual for effective functioning in society. Core subject means the subject required by everybody regardless of specialization. Core subject provides knowledge and learning experiences that are fundamental for all learners in other words required for all. Core subject that are compulsory throughout each key stage in the National Curriculum. A core curriculum would create in him desirable patterns of interests’ attitudes and values.
Core curriculum is an attempt to provide pupils with an opportunity to participate in activities in the school. It will make their life in the community more meaningful to themselves and would help them to establish desirable patterns of approach towards their future life. Core curriculum intents to provide the irreducible minimum program regarded as necessity for every citizen to be able to live satisfactorily in a modern society. This will equip the student with the fundamental knowledge essentially required for social living. Core curriculum seeks to provide the irreducible minimum regarded as necessary for everyone to be able to live satisfactorily in modern society. It prepares the student for living; not to make a living. It equips the students with fundamental knowledge for social living
According to Iswar Bai Pattel committee a general broad based education should be provided up to the end of the stage of compulsory education, so that children leaving school may acquire knowledge of our culture and are enabled to exercise their rights as citizens in a responsible manner.

Secondary commission and social science
"Social Studies" as a term is comparatively new in Indian education; it is meant to cover the ground traditionally associated with History, Geography, Economics, Civics, etc. If the teaching of these separate subjects only imparts miscellaneous and unrelated information and does not throw any light on, or provide insight into social conditions and problems or create the desire to improve the existing state of things, their educative significance will be negligible. This whole group of studies has, therefore, to be viewed as a compact whole, whose object is to adjust the students to their social environment which includes the family, community, State and nation-so that they may be able to understand how society has come to its present form and interpret intelligently the matrix of social forces and movements in the midst of which they are living. They help the student to discover and explain how this adjustment has taken place in the past and how it is taking place today. Through them, the students should be able to acquire not only the knowledge but attitudes and values which are essential for successful group living and civic efficiency. They should endeavor to give the students not only a sense of national patriotism and an appreciation of national heritage, but also a keen and lively sense of world unity and world citizenship. We need hardly state the obvious fact that these are but the formulation of the aims which have to be achieved; their translation into curricular terms will require careful thought and patient research. In the chapter on 'Methods', we have said something about how the various topics should be presented in the form of units and projects etc.

Points outs of MUDALIYAR commission

·         At the Middle school stage, the curriculum should include (i) Languages; (ii) Social Studies; (iii) General Science; (iv) Mathematics; (v) Art and Music; (vi) Craft; and (vii) Physical Education.
·         At the High school or Higher Secondary stage, diversified courses of instruction should be provided for the pupils.
·         A certain number of core subjects should be common to all students whatever the diversified courses of study that they may take; these should consist of (i) Languages, (ii) General Science, (iii) Social Studies, and (v) a Craft.
·         Diversified courses of study should include the following seven groups: (i) Humanities, (ii) Sciences, (iii) Technical subjects, (iv) Commercial subjects, (v) Agricultural subjects, (vi) Fine Arts, and (vii) Home Science; as and when necessary additional diversified courses may be added.
·         The diversified curriculum should begin in the second year of the High school or Higher Secondary school stage.

1.9. CURRICULUM SUGGESTED BY MUDALIYAR COMMISSION

1) Curriculum for Middle Schools
2) Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools.

The Commission has laid down the following different curriculum for these two stages in the secondary education.
1)      Curriculum for the Middle Schools

The Commission has recommended the inclusion of the following subjects.
a) English.                               b) Social Studies.
c) General Science.                 d) Mathematics.
e) Art and Music.                    f) Craft.
g) Physical Education.

2)      The Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools-

For this stage of education, the commission has suggested that there should be a diversified course.
(a) Compulsory subjects or main subjects; and
(b) Optional subjects.

A)    Compulsory Subjects :
The Compulsory subjects shall include the following :
1. Mother tongue or regional language or composite course of the mother tongue and a classical language.

One other language to be chosen from among the following.
·         Hindi for those whose mother tongue is not Hindi.
·         Elementary English (for those who have not studied English in the middle stage).
·         Advanced English (for those who have studied English at the earlier stage).
·         A Modern Indian Language (other than Hindi).
·         A modern foreign language (other than English).
·         A classical language.

3. Social studies - General course (for the first two years only).
4. General science, including Mathematics - General course (for the first two years only).
5. One Craft to be chosen out of the list given below.
·         Spinning and weaving
·         Wood Work
·         Metal Work
·         Gardening
·         Tailoring
·         Typography
·         Workshop Practice
·         Sewing, Needle Work and Embroidery
·         Modeling

B)    Optional Subjects :

Three subjects from one of the following groups -

Group - 1 (Humanities) : (a) A classical language or a third language from A (2) not already
    taken; (b)History; (c) Geography; (d) Elements of  Economics and Civics;   
    (e)Elements of  Psychology and Logic; (f) Mathematics; (g) Music; (h) Domestic  
    Science.
    Group -2 (Sciences) : (a) Physics; (b) Chemistry; (c) Biology; (d) Geography;
(e)Mathematics; (f)Elements of Physiology and Hygiene; (not to be taken with
Biology).
    Group -3 (Technical) :(a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Engineering;
(b)Applied Science; (c) Elements of Mechanical Engineering; (d) Elements of
Electrical Engineering.
    Group - 4 (Commercial) : (a) Commercial Practice; (b) Book-Keeping; (c)
Commercial Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics; (d) Shorthand
and Typewriting.
Group - 5 (Agriculture) : (a) General Agriculture; (b) Animal Husbandry; (c) Horticulture
and Gardening; (d) Agricultural Chemistry and Botany
Group - 6 (Fine Arts) : (a) History of Art; (b) Drawing and Designing; (c) Painting;
  (d)Modeling; (e) Music; (f) Dancing.
Group - 7 (Home Science) : (a) Home Economics; (b) Nutrition and Cookery; (c) Mother
      Craft and Child Care; (d) Household Management and Home Nursing.

Core subjects suggested by NATIONAL POLICY IN EDUCATION 

1.      History of freedom struggle
2.      Constitutional obligations
3.      Cultural heritage
4.      Egalitarianism
5.      Equality in sex
6.      Democracy and secularism
7.      Protection of environment
8.      Removal of social barriers
9.      Observance of small family norms
1.  Inclusion of scientific temper
1.10. SOCIAL SCIENCE AS A CORE SUBJECT
·         Social science as core subject equip students with clear knowledge of social living
·         It not only aims to enable him to adjust himself but also to improve his social, cultural and economic environment in active co operation with others.
·         It is satisfies minimum needs of every learners
·         It serves as an introduction to more specialised studies beyond school classes
·         It should be considered as the minimum essential requirement of school education
·         Its subject matters is man and his environment
·         the values such as positive attitude towards our cultural heritage, national unity, secularism, religious tolerance should develop through the study of social science
·         preparing the student s to make adjustments in the society
·         Iswar Bai Pattel committee (1979) also recommended a broad based education be provided up to the end of the stage of compulsory education

1.11. TYPE OF CORE DESIGNS
       Following are the different types of core design used
·         The Separate Subjects Core
Perhaps the most commonly encountered of the so called core designs the separate subject’s core consists of a series of required individual subjects separately taught by subject matter specialists. In a junior high school two core subjects are sometimes taught by a single teacher in a block time.
·         The correlated core
The correlated core curriculum attempts to provide common learning in a coherent form by showing the relationship among the two or more subjects included in the core.
·         Fused core
The fused core is based on the total integration or fusion of two or more separate subjects.
·         The activity core
The activity core or experience core defines general education, in terms of immediate felt needs and interests of the learners. Like other leaner centred designs this one eschews all planning and formal structure basing ultimate curriculum content and organisation on the classroom planning and decision making of students and teachers.
·         The living core
The living core of social function is a pre planned, required program of general education based on problems arising out of common activities in a society. This design is regarded as an authentic core design because it is 1) problem centred rather than subject centred, 2) essentially pre planted, 3) compromised of integrated common learning and 4) customarily taught in a block time class by a teacher who act as a guide. The areas of living core are based on the universal human activities.
·         The social problem core
The social problem core is similar to the areas of living core- so similar there is no critical deference between these two designs. Social problem core derived from the crucial issues that best men at every level of contemporary social life. 

1.12. REASONS FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE AS A CORE SUBJECT
Psychological reasons
Importance of environment - According to psychology man is the creation of environment and his personality is best developed in an environment while human being responds to his environment he also seeks to understand it thoroughly and interpret it correctly. Mans direct participation in his environment established an interpersonal relationships. In our complex society the burden, providing the necessary social training, has now shifted to our schools. This burden has now been shifted to schools. Among all school subjects’ social studies is the only subject who studies man and his relationships with his environment. Hence its importance is as a core subject.
Importance of behaviour - Psychology is the science of behaviour. In the modern age our problems are solved with the better use of psychological findings. If one is psychologically convinced that he is to live along with others he requires a particular type of behaviour to interact and understand the interaction of others. This can be achieved through a course, rooted in children’s day to day experiences. Therefore social science has been assigned an important place in the new school curriculum because it deals with concrete things and deals with the substances of life, for life and assimilated through living
Educational reasons
            The social, economic and political problems of the modern world are so intricate that if left to themselves or to their home and community few young men and women can be trusted to pick up the necessary information. Education has three main aims, the material, the cultural and the social. The material aim says that the parents want that education should fit the child to earn his living. Thus education as primarily a form of vocational preparation. Cultural aim says that education should aim at the complete and harmonious development of the child. (Social aim).  Both these aims ignore the important fact that a child has to play as a member of the society in which he is born.
According to democracy in modern time each citizen should take his part in decisions of national and international importance. There for education must contribute the real experience towards the development of the child in a social context by providing experiences which should be enable the child to understand his own nature, the nature of his physical and social environment and his place within that environment. Education must develop the attitude and skills for the group life and civic efficiency such as social mindedness, truthfulness, honesty, loyalty, tolerance, and co cooperativeness etc.
A modern teacher has at this command such as the new tools, the wireless, the cinema, and the visual aids of all types, the project methods and the activity methods. All these must set in the frame work of an integrated course of study realise their full value. This begins us to the problem of the integration of subject units which is the content of social studies.   
Sociological reasons
Development of social character - The purpose of social studies in schools is the development of social character.
This may be done by drawing the child into the community and making awareness about collective life and ideals.
Social awareness- social awareness is necessary for avoiding the anti social behaviour of the child.  It gives the child a sense of belongingness, sense of family, neighbourhood, community, nation and humanity.
Socialisation –If education has got any aim like socialisation, social studies which promise to contribute much to education. This is the best fulfilled by social studies because social studies keeps this aim in the for frond.  Socialisation is the main aim of education which will contributed by the subject social science.
Study of society – in social studies we study the nature of society its present shape and how its evolution to its present form. Achievements of the society in the past there effect on the present is an important content of social studies. 
Changes and problems - Social studies find out how man has changed his physical environment and adjusted himself according to his environment. This will help in produce well adjusted citizens prepared to solve the pressing problems of our times. It will enable our students to become efficient and effective members of the world community.

Practical reasons
 Practical attitudes and ideas – Social Science inculcates the attitude and ideals which make one more successful in his practical life than other wise. Our present day life demands from us more knowledge of social behaviour and greater social awareness. There for social studies must be taught as compulsory subject to future citizens to produce well informed and enlightened citizens who may promote common welfare after subordinating their own selfishness and greed. 
Increasing responsibility of citizenship – Since the earliest period of Indian history one of the major aim of education has been train our children for responsible citizenship. With the establishment of democracy as a system of government in India this aim has come in to the fore-frond. The task of schools in general and social studies in particular has become greater for realisation of this aim.
Re adjustment in nuclear family – In older days there were only joint families including not only mother, father and their own children but also grandparents aunts, uncles, cousins, and other members who lived in the same roof. Joint family gave stability and security to home life. The family lived, played, and worked together, depending upon each member for his contribution towards the welfare of the group. Home life is now quit different in today’s nuclear family system. The rapid migration of rural population towards the indusial towns and the enormous increase in price has created many social problems directly concerned with the social life of the children. All this makes the content of a social studies course.
Rapid growth in communication and transportation – During the Last few decades the rapid growth in communication and transportation has received a number of exceeding complex problems in human relationships on international level. Man made barriers of cultural differences, colonial and commercial rivalries and intolerance etc along with physical barriers, mountains oceans and deserts etc have been removed. Today there is a free flow of ideas, communications, information’s, and interaction among the people of the world. There for there is a great need for the effective teaching of social studies.
Increasing responsibility for democratic living – Today democracy has been accepted as a way of life by a majority of nations of the world. This has increased the personal responsibility of each citizen. Who must have a sound understanding of his or her relationship and responsibility to the group. In turn the group should also understand its responsibility to the individual. There for the school should provide experience to children who may familiarise them with democratic living and with deep appreciation of the liberty enjoyed by the citizens of a nation. This is taught effectively through social studies. 
Need of international understanding – modern man is overpowered by fear and insecurity which cannot be removed unless he has faith in the basic goodness of man. If we want to change the world, we cannot do so mealy by trying to change the outside world, we must also change the world within the world of mans mind and emotions, where the seeds of violence and hatred or peace and love are initially sown. This is the basic educational challenge of modern age.  Today we need co operation among nations, charity among groups, and love among individual, and justice for all. Co –operation charity and love were preached and practiced by men like Plato, Budda, Gandhiji, Jesus crist, Mohammad, Linclon etc. Today these have to be woven to the fabric of our educational thought and practices so that men learn to live together, to love and respect of one another joys and sorrows and to help one another to overcome the hurdles of life. This is the best done by the study of social studies in our school curriculum.
Overcoming the cultural forces - Today industrial and technological advances should be given to subjects and a greater emphasis placed on material that answers pupils’ needs. They would evaluate the material regardless of subject on the functional value to the people. We need to understand social phenomena and the laws of change much more than before because every adult citizen is expected to participate in controlling them. This is done by the teaching of social studies.
1.13. RELATION SHIP WITH OTHER CORE SUBJECTS
            People everywhere have certain basic needs whose fulfillment depends on their environment and their cultural level. Science disciplines and humanities help and reinforce the social studies in order to help of science and their social implications. Educators agree that children and youth should sense these essential relationships. All the subjects must mesh together to shed light for proper and through study of these relationships. As no single subject can give a complete and correct picture of complex human relationships, there is need for studying one another relationships. Different subjects must be correlated and associated for the benefit of all. Numerous situations are provided for related learning in a functional setting. Thus social studies provide a natural setting for an application of knowledge and basic skills in solving human problems.        
Social studies and science
In the Present New Set Up every child has to study physical natural or biological and social sciences. While physical science deal with our environment and the material around us natural or biological sciences deal with the organic existence around us, the flora, the fauna, the human being and the complicated process of their growth and decay. Social science deal with the needs of man and society and the way in which he has organized himself in his political, economic and commercial activities.
Physical science and social studies are closely related. Units dealing with food, clothing, shelter, weather, transport and communication are used in science as well as in social studies. Advances in science and technology have revolutionized social life all over the world. Fast means of transport and communication have brought man and man and nation and nation closer to each other. Countries of the world have been closely knit together due to effect of scientific inventions and discoveries on human life.
            Dealing with the intimate things the physical science has little in common with the social sciences but the interaction between the two is of tremendous significance. In their influence upon mankind they are not independent of each other. Eg. For making a bomb, the bomb is physical but its effect and the problems of its proper use and control were not the concern of all social scientists.
Biological Principles are of great use to the social scientist. The social studies use biological principle to present an integrated picture of population dynamics. Biological concepts woven in to social studies are of great help to the understanding of the overpopulation problem in its true perspective. Biological concepts such as reproduction is a life process, sexuality is an adaptation, the tendency for species to over populate are useful in social studies. The growth population is controlled by limiting factors of his environment. Mans control trough medical research death control and birth control have developed considerably in the past several decades.
            The scientific improvement leads to social and cultural improvement. Man reduces his dependence upon natural resource. Whenever he creates an effective substitute for a natural resource or discovers new ways to use it more effectively. The rate of scientific development in an area directly influences the ways of people to meet their basic needs. Man often creates new social problems that he must solve while inventing machines which make it easier for him to meet his physical needs.
            Social problems like over population, great disparities in the distribution of wealth can be understood against the background of science. The medical advances, architectural knowledge and astronomical calculations, the latest inventions and discoveries all have their social significance. Effective citizenship cannot exist without the assimilation of science into the breadth and depth of the whole mental experience of human being.
            Ours is a rapid changing and shrinking world. Technological development is creating far reaching changes in the mode of living. Modern science is all perceive. So modern societies are based on science. Science is intimately related to the means of production, means of communication and means of transport. Economics and politics depended on scientific factors such as productivity and transportation. Even the modes of teaching and learning look to science for speed and effectiveness. Computers, radio, films, television, are being used in modern education. Every  were in any walk of life must be aware of science and technology and know their social impact. Knowledge and skills of physics, chemistry, and biology may be translated in to purposeful social activity.
Today the scientific method extends far beyond science. Every discipline uses the method of observation, method of making symbolic, graphical or linguistic models, of applying reason as well as imagination to draw conclusions from data to formulate theories and the method of keeping an objective view while theories are tested.  There can be no going away from method of science trough the facts of today may not be the facts of tomorrow and theories may also undergo.
The curriculum of social science and the science are in fact inter-dependent. The life and work of eminent scientists of the world are as much a part of social studies curriculum as the biographies of different sciences, the biography of a scientist or the impact of scientific development on human society all these are significant facts for social studies.
In the unified course of social studies are included experiences helping students to understand the conditions needed for growing various kinds of plants and trees for human comfort, the need for good food in maintaining health, elementary physiology and important principles of cleanliness and sanitation. Through these concepts we are closely related to science than social science. But these are closely the social studies related areas of studies. For better understanding social science we are depending up on the scientific advancements in this matter. For better understanding of social studies concepts and understanding of human developments in various ages we can approach the scientific conclusions and knowledge’s. Through which we can understand the impact of scientific inventions in the development of human society. For the material civilization period man has to apply the scientific theories to solve the crucial industrial problems. It only trough the development of a unified courses of social studies along with physical science man can find out solutions for his problems. In most cases in the class rooms the well informed and alert teacher who may use the techniques of team teaching there we can notice the development of socio- scientific culture. Then, how we can avoid to discuss the relationship between the science and social science.
Social studies and mathematics
Mathematics helps man to quantify the ideas to be precise and to utilize spatial concepts in his day to day living. Due to its place in the science and in the practical arts form the informational and computational stand points it is indispensible in our life. Mathematical literacy is essential for every citizen in a society which is rapidly transforming itself in to an industrial and technological society.
Mathematics is helpful in meeting basic needs of human being. A citizen must be a good producer and a good consumer. Trough mathematics children acquire skills, through speed and accuracy which prove useful in common transactions in life situations. Children must be trained in the use of price lists, vouchers and advertisements. They should learn the compound rules involving money, weight, time and measure. They must learn to bring the expenditure within a given income and to use it to the advantage of the family. From the house hold budgets they may be led to the municipal, state, and central government budgets. They must know about the different kind of taxation and the use government makes of taxes. So they must learn their civic duties.
Teaching of mathematics trough social studies knowledge of simple interest, post office savings accounts, stocks and shares, national savings can be used in the house hold situations. Ratio and percentages may be taught through class room situations such as attendance, age, examination results, height, weight, and school fees. Averages may be taught trough examples in such familial matters such as temperature, rainfall etc. Thus the relationship between social studies and mathematics are uncountable, their teaching can be associated and correlated.
Social science and language
Social studies are very much reinforced by language. Lavishly illustrated books and recordings of famous heroes, recounting events of the past help children to read and listen and to react to what they read and hear. A child has to consult different sources to gather material of social studies. He must be good reader to cull out relevant information while teaching social studies opportunities should be provided to pupils for speaking, discussing and narrating their experiences verbally as well as in writing.
While social studies contain a record of the deeds of men; literature is the record of feelings, emotions, imagination and the thought of men. Indeed it is only by bringing the two records together and comparing them, interpreting ones feelings in the light of their deeds and illustrating their deeds by their sentiments and feelings expressed in literature the study of both literature and studies can be made more vital.
Language and social studies go hand in hand. While social studies deal with man and society, language provided man with a vehicle of expression and communication. Literature shows the ways of knowledge about people’s events and places. Education must build persuasive bridge academic studies like social studies and literature. Thus language provides great potential for enriching learning in social studies.
Social studies and art
As the firm of social studies is to promote the individual and social competence, so is the aim of art, music, and other aesthetic activities. Art education begins with creative aesthetic activities and leads to the cultivation of discrimination and aesthetic sense and the capacity to choose and take up what is beautiful and harmonious, simple, healthy and pure. This lends grace to character and behavior. It makes the students a finer human beings.
Art and music and other aesthetic activities and social studies reinforce each other. In teaching social studies to students the teacher uses the contribution of great painters, sculptures, musicians etc. The great Indian creators of the Taj, the stupa of sanchi, goutham buddas stupa etc had knowledge of anatomy, physical balance, and political impact of psychological stimuli, economics or religion. They were equally concerned with man and society. Art and music and other aesthetic activities enrich social studies. They make it interesting. Students are required to draw pictures graphs, maps, diagrams, timelines, weather, charts and build models of buildings, projects and dams costumes etc for dramatization through art activities. On the other hand social studies provide themes to artistic, musical, and other aesthetic activities. Both these core subjects support, supplement and reinforce each another. 
Social studies and supw
            Socially useful productive work is purposive, meaningful, manual, work resulting in goods or services useful to the community. It is intended to provide children with opportunities of participating in social and economic activities inside and outside the class rooms. It provides opportunity to understand scientific principles and process involved in different types of work and setting in which they are found in the physical and social environment. Therefore the socially useful productive work finds a central place in the curriculum of social studies. It reduces the gap between work and education and bridges the gulf that divides the affluent from the weaker and poorer sections of the community. It develops a positive attitude of teamwork and socially desirable values like self reliance, dignity of labour, tolerance, cooperation, sympathy and helpfulness. It creates a desire to be useful member of society and contribute over best to the common.
            Both social studies and socially useful productive work reinforce each other. Problem solving approach is used in both. Productive manual work situations relating to production of goods and services are drawn from the areas which are the focus of action of social science. These include health and hygiene, food, shelter, clothing, culture and relation and community work and social science.           
1.14 SOCIAL SCIENCES AND NCF
The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society, and include a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of History, geography, political science, economics, sociology and anthropology. Social Science perspectives and knowledge are indispensable to building the knowledge base for a just and peaceful society. The content should aim at raising students' awareness through critically exploring and questioning of familiar social reality. The possibilities of including new dimensions and concerns, especially in view of students' own life experiences, are considerable. Selecting and organizing material into a meaningful curriculum, one that will enable students to develop a critical understanding of society, is therefore a challenging task. Because the social sciences tend to be considered non-utility subjects and are given less importance than the natural sciences, it is necessary to emphasize that they provide the social, cultural, and analytical skills required to adjust to an increasingly interdependent world, and to deal with political and economic realities. It is believed that the social sciences merely transmit information and are text centered. Therefore, the content needs to focus on a conceptual understanding rather lining up facts to be memorized for examinations. Reiterating the recommendations of 'Learning without Burden (1993), emphasis has to be laid on developing concepts and the ability to analyze sociopolitical realities rather than on the mere retention of information without comprehension. There is also a perception that not many career options are open to students specializing in the social sciences. On the contrary, the social sciences are becoming increasingly relevant for jobs in the rapidly expanding service sector, and also in developing skills of analysis and creativity. In a pluralistic society like ours, it is important that all regions and social groups be able to relate to the textbooks. Relevant local content should be part of the teaching learning process, ideally transacted through activities drawing on local resources. It is also necessary to recognize that the social sciences lend themselves to scientific inquiry just as much as the natural and physical sciences do, as well as to indicate ways in which the methods employed by the social sciences are distinct (but in no way inferior to those of the natural and physical sciences). The social sciences carry a normative responsibility of creating a strong sense of human values, namely, freedom, trust, mutual respect, and respect for diversity. Social science teaching should aim at generating in students a critical moral and mental energy, making them alert to the social forces that threaten these values.
The disciplines that make up the social sciences, namely, History, geography, political science, and economics, have distinct methodologies that often justify the retaining of boundaries. At the same time, cross disciplinary approaches that are possible should also be indicated. For an enabling curriculum, certain themes that facilitate interdisciplinary thinking need to be incorporated.
The proposed epistemological frame
Based on the above considerations of popular perceptions, and the issues to be addressed in the study of the social sciences, the National Focus Group on the Teaching of the Social Sciences proposes that the following points be treated as basic for the revised syllabi. (Textbooks themselves should be seen as opening up avenues for further enquiry, and students should be encouraged to go beyond the textbook to further reading and observation.) As pointed out by the Kothari Commission, the social science curriculum hitherto emphasized developmental issues. These are important but not sufficient for understanding the normative dimension, like issues of equality, justice, and dignity in society and polity. The role of individuals in contributing to this 'development' has often been overemphasized. An epistemological shift is suggested so as to accommodate the multiple ways of imagining the Indian nation. The national perspective needs to be balanced with reference to the local. At the same time, Indian History should not be taught in isolation, and there should be reference to developments in other parts of the world. It is suggested that instead of Civics, the term Political Science be used. Civics appeared in the Indian school curriculum in the colonial period against the background of increasing 'disloyalty' among Indians towards the Raj. Emphasis on obedience and loyalty were the key features of Civics. Political Science treats civil society as the sphere that produces sensitive, interrogative, deliberative, and transformative citizens. Gender concerns need to be addressed in terms of making the perspectives of women integral to the discussion of any historical event and contemporary concerns. This requires an epistemic shift from the patriarchal preconceptions that inform much of the social studies at present. The concerns related to the health of children, and also those related to social aspects of changes and developments occurring in them during adolescence like changing relationships with parents, peer group, the opposite sex and the adult world in general, need to be addressed appropriately. The responses to the health needs of children and adolescents/youth through policies and programmes at different levels are closely related elements of these concerns. The concept of human rights has a universal frame of reference. It is imperative that children are introduced to universal values in a manner appropriate for their age. Reference to day-to-day issues, e.g. the problem of getting water, can be discussed so that young students become aware of issues related to human dignity and rights.
Planning the curriculum
For the primary grades, the natural and the social environment will be explained as integral parts of languages and mathematics. Children should be engaged in activities to understand the environment through illustrations from the physical, biological, social, and cultural spheres. The language used should be gender sensitive. Teaching methods should be in a participative and discussion-oriented mode. For Classes III to V, the subject Environment Studies (EVS) will be introduced. In the study of the natural environment, emphasis will be on its preservation and the urgency of saving it from degradation. Children will also begin to be sensitized to social issues like poverty, child labour, illiteracy, caste and class inequalities in rural and urban areas. The content should reflect the day-to-day experiences of children and their life worlds. At the upper primary stage, Social Studies will draw its content from History, geography, political science and economics. History will take into account developments in different parts of India, with sections on events or developments in other parts of the world. Geography can help develop a balanced perspective related to issues concerning the environment, resources and development at different levels, from local to global. In Political Science, students will be introduced to the formation and functioning of governments at local, state, and central levels and the democratic processes of participation. The economics component will enable students to observe economic institutions like the family, the market and the state. There will also be a section that will indicate a multidisciplinary approach to these themes. At the secondary stage, the Social Sciences comprise History, geography, sociology, political science and economics. The focus will be on Contemporary India, and the learner will be initiated into a deeper understanding of the social and economic challenges facing the nation. In keeping with the epistemic shift proposed, these will be discussed from multiple perspectives, including those of the SC and ST and disenfranchised populations. Efforts should be made to relate the content as much as possible to the children's everyday lives. In History, India's freedom movement and other aspects of its modern History can be studied, as well as significant developments in other parts of the world. History should be taught with the intent of enabling students better understand their own world and their own identities came into being as shaped by a rich and varied past. History should now help them discover processes of change and continuity in their world, and to compare ways in which power and control were and are exercised. Geography should be taught keeping in mind the need to inculcate in the child a critical appreciation for conservation and environmental concerns along with developmental issues. In Political Science, the focus should be on discussing the philosophical foundations that underlie the value framework of the Indian Constitution, i.e. in-depth discussion of equality, liberty, justice, fraternity, secularism, dignity, plurality, and freedom from exploitation. As the discipline of Economics is being introduced to the child at this level, it is important that the topics should be discussed from the perspective of the people. The higher secondary stage is important as it offers a choice of subjects to students. For some students, this stage may be the end of their formal education, leading to the world of work and employment; for others, the foundation for higher education. They may choose either specialized academic courses or job-oriented vocational courses. The foundation at this stage should equip them with basic knowledge and the necessary skills to make a meaningful contribution in the field they choose. A range courses from the social sciences and commerce may be offered, and students may exercise their choice. Subjects need not be grouped into separate 'streams', and students should have the freedom to opt for subjects or courses according to their need, interest and aptitude. The social sciences will include disciplines like political science, geography, History, economics, sociology and psychology. Commerce may include business studies and accountancy.
Approaches to pedagogy and resources
Social science teaching needs to be revitalized for helping the learner acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive environment. The teaching of the social sciences must adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and critical perspectives, and enable children to draw the class, and work towards creating increasing self-awareness amongst themselves and the learners. 
1.15. KCF AND SOCIAL SCIENCES  
 The study of Social sciences needs to help the learner understand social reality and equip him/her to react to social situations. The learner of social science cannot go forward ignoring the growing influence of caste, race, superstitions and unscientific practices in society. The learner needs to understand social realities like unemployment, alcoholism, drugs and increasing rate of suicide in our society and analyze the cause and effect of such issues for finding solutions to them. The employment opportunities in the fields related to science attract most of the learners towards science. The concept of activity-based, process oriented learning could not be actualized in the learning of the social sciences. The curriculum revision of 1997 made efforts to make the study of social sciences activity-based and process-oriented. At this stage the values and attitudes that have to be inculcated by learning social sciences were stressed upon. The possibility of integrating science and social sciences was discussed. Utilization of local resources in order to facilitate the learning of social sciences was also put forward.
Social sciences was integrated with language and mathematics in I and II standards. In the III and IV standards, science and Social Sciences were presented as Environmental Studies. From the V to X standards, Physical Sciences were separated from Social Sciences. In the higher secondary classes a completely subject oriented approach was put forward. Social Science curriculum that stresses on social justice faced a lot of limitations. Lack of proper infrastructure and inability to utilize local resources caused problems in learning Social Science as in the case of other subjects. The above observations are based on the suggestions made by the National Curriculum Framework 2005. But yet, the Kerala experience has helped us in analyzing things beyond the ideas put forward by NCF 2005. 
Issues and limitations

• Teachers are not equipped to approach the curriculum in a comprehensive manner and to transact it in true spirit
• Most of them have a wrong notion that textbook and handbook are the only materials for curriculum transaction
• Lack of competent resource persons in teacher training programmes
• Lack of awareness about textbooks suitable to activity-based classroom
• Classrooms that depend only on the traditional learning materials
• Inefficiency of teachers in overcoming the academic issues by proper planning
• Lack of continuity of cluster meeting of teachers, complacency in utilizing innovative strategies in teaching learning process and lack of effective monitoring system
• Lack of books and other materials that are required for gathering information
• Difficulties faced in continuous evaluation
• Lack of means to ensure whether learners make use of the values and attitudes they have acquired in their daily lives
• Lack of parental awareness on latest learning principles
• Lack of proper interventions from the part of local self government bodies
• The different subject combinations in social sciences/commerce at the higher secondary level
• Over loaded content, and arrangement of it not suitable for spiralling of facts and figures
• Lack of possibility for critical assessment of information given
• Dearth of scope for converting pieces of information gathered to knowledge
• Overlooking the fact that different subjects that come under Social Science have there on method of study and approaching all subjects in the same fashion
• Lack of proper accessibility to resources such as reference book, internet and other media
• The existing period structure
• The inability of the curriculum to accommodate the different cultural sects within our society such as adivasis and dalits and their resultant alienation. It also results in ignoring dignity of labour and the knowledge of the marginalized
• Lack of integrated approach at higher levels
Aims of social science
• creating opportunities for developing awareness on the complementary nature of the individual and the society and his/ her physical surroundings
• developing opportunities to understand the present status of the society and compare it with earlier times for developing perspective about the future and intervening for creating awareness on production and distribution of wealth and economic relations in society and to equip the learner to intervene in economic matters in favour of the larger interest of the society
• formulating ideas regarding social structures, its development and its relationship with social contexts and the role of economic relations in social development process
• forming conclusions about power structures evolved in different stages of human development, systems of administration and the state
• developing awareness on democracy, social justice, equality and secularism and forming stance against the forces that are opposed to them
• understanding problems faced by the marginalized and taking stand points for helping them to get equal justice
• familiarizing with the methodology of learning social sciences and developing skills related to it
Primary level
At the primary level, an integrated approach is desirable. The learners should be able to link the experiences gathered by them with the learning materials. There should be provisions for the learner to from ideas based on concrete facts. Learners must not be forced to attain a level which is beyond his/her reach. There should be scope for the learner to apply what he/she has gathered. At the upper primary level a continuation of what is suggested for lower primary can be made. The possibility of integrating different subjects under social sciences may be explored. At this stage, the range of experience of the learner is expanding and when the learner passes through learning experiences related to his/her own locality he/she must be able to extrapolate it to the state and national levels and analyze it as well. The learner should view history by fixing himself/ herself in his/her immediate social surroundings and evaluate these surroundings against the backdrop of the history of the nation. The learner needs to be familiarized himself/herself with the administrative setup and public institutions in his/her vicinity. At this stage the learner should get an opportunity to involve himself/herself in group activities that help him/her to acquire values such as democracy, equality, and social justice and to collect data by interacting with the society to construct new forms of knowledge.
Secondary level
The learners at this level belong to an age group that enables them to take up responsibilities and to interfere creatively. The learning activities should be designed in such a way as to create an integrated experience of all the subjects that come under Social Sciences. Here integration of ideas and varied learning methods should go hand in hand. The learner is capable of internalizing abstract ideas at this stage. Therefore in learning Political Science there should be provision for him/her to learn ideas such as equality, justice, brotherhood and self esteem. He/she should be able to liberate himself/herself from all forms of exploitation. The child should gather knowledge about historical events as well.
The learners at the secondary level have a high sense of self-esteem and self realization. The education on contemporary subjects should focus on assimilating the experiences of the marginalized and must use the vast quantity of knowledge that they possess. The same perspective has to be maintained in the learning of History as well. In learning the history of the freedom movement of India learners must be aware of the involvement of the different regions and social classes in it.
The learning of Geography should provide the learner boarder environmental perspective that upholds the idea that the earth is an invaluable asset handed over to us by our predecessors and that it should be properly conserved for the generations to come. The study of Economics should help him/her go beyond statistical data collection. Instead it should equip him/ her to formulate ideas in economics which are socially relevant. When we say that the learner must familiarize himself/herself with the learning methodology of different subjects we do not mean to say that it should be a process that aims at collecting information from different subjects. The plethora of information should not hinder the construction of knowledge. At this stage, the students are capable of social interaction. Therefore the curriculum should provide more opportunity to the learner for communication with the outside world and the realization of information that he/ she has internalized. The formation of school parliament and club activities would serve to familiarize the students with administrative set ups and their functioning.
Higher secondary level
This stage can be looked at in two dimensions. In the case of a few learners, this stage is the final phase of formal education. It helps them enter the job market. It also develops in them the ability to interact with the society. For some others, the higher secondary is the spring board for higher studies. These learners should acquire the basic skills to pursue the study of a subject of their own interest. Along with that, the learner should get an opportunity to acquire social skills. Both these groups of learners should get a chance to select subjects according to their interests and develop the ability to handle abstract ideas. They should go through different learning methodologies. Learning experiences have to be arranged in such a way as to facilitate learners from all regions and social classes. The self esteem of all the learners should be elevated. Different subjects have different modes of approach in the learning process. Still, we must ensure a link between all these to the extent possible. Along with that, we must develop learning materials that can provide a variegated experience to the learner.
The learners at this level are able to interact with the society in a more accomplished way and they must be able to apply knowledge that they create in real social situations. The activities taken up by the learners should be approved as valid learning activities. Within the school atmosphere, there should be practical situations to utilize knowledge that the learners create. For instance, the history museum created by learners as part of learning history or a co-operative society led by the students as a part of learning economics should be considered as learning activities. The learning experience of all levels should be organized by considering the curriculum objectives of social sciences. Apart from the information a learner acquires by learning Social Sciences the knowledge to be constructed by the learner must be clearly defined. The learning objectives need to be fixed in accordance with it. It must be born in mind that the development of different levels of learning of Social Sciences gets exemplified in making absolute knowledge a dynamic social praxis 
1.16. FUSION, INTEGRATION AND CORRELATION
In recent years many educators have demanded that less attention should be given to subjects and a greater emphasis placed on material that answers pupil’s needs. They would evaluate the material regardless of subject on the curriculum and many experiments have been attempted. As a result much work has been done on the curriculum and many experiments have been attempted. Literature relating to organizing the curriculum contains such terminology as fusion, correlation and integration. These terms relate to the arrangement of content in the curriculum and should not be thought of as a type of curricular organization.  
Traditional curriculum design is very much subject centered where we have our subjects as Math’s, English, Science. Then we may have the humanities subjects as History, Geography, and Politics. Then the Languages, the arts subjects as Music, Drama, and Art. Then at the lower end we may have the technical arts as Woodwork and Metalwork. Each one of these areas has its own assessment criteria, practical activities, aims or objectives, assessment types.
Fusion
Fusion refers to the organization for instructional purpose of content from several subject areas into unified course. Such an arrangement ignores the conventional barriers or boundaries between existing subjects. In this multidisciplinary approach, teachers fuse skills, knowledge, or even attitudes into the regular school curriculum. In some schools, for example, students learn respect for the environment in every subject area. The school records the number of days without a fight as “peace days”; teachers write the accumulated number of peace days on the blackboard in every classroom. Teachers wear peace signs, and students greet each other with the peace sign.
Fusion implies the breakdown of subject boundaries and selection of material from various fields to achieve the objectives that have been set up. Fusion can involve basic skills. Many schools emphasize positive work habits in each subject area. Educators can fuse technology across the curriculum with computer skills integrated into every subject area. Literacy across the curriculum is another example of fusion. For example in the social studies curriculum History, Geography, and Civics frequently united at the junior high school level in to one course. Proponents of the plan claim that under such a procedure the solution and arrangement of material can be based on social objectives and not on the traditional content basis.
Fusion courses vary to a considerable extent. The earliest courses attempted to blend the material in two or three subjects. History, Geography, and Civics were the fields generally chosen for the fusion experiments. Such a procedure was natural for long before the term fusion had been used in education, teachers has pointed out the importance of a geographical background for the study of history and often history and civics were closely related.  
Fusion movement gained impetus through the appearance of textbooks for fusion courses in the junior high school. At one time such text books were adopted by many schools. Un doubtedly the fusion movement would not have made much progress had it not been for the work of Rugg who prepared a series of such books for the junior high school. This first series was published in 1929. The remaining five appeared at various times during the following years. However in later years the use of the fusion textbook declined.      
Correlation
Correlation design Allows for some linkage of separate subjects in order to reduce fragmentation of the curricular content. Correlation design is similar to broad-field design in that it is focused on integration. The difference is that correlation design combines only two subjects while broad-field will combine several subjects.  In many ways, one could say that correlation design is a simplistic version of broad-field design. Some examples of correlation design social psychology, which is sociology and psychology; bio-statistics, which is biology and statistics; and music technology, which focuses on music and its use through technology.  Generally, correlation design is found at the university level where students need expertise in specific subjects. 
Correlation means the seeking and utilizing of points of contacts and relationships among subjects in order to bring about association in general field of knowledge and to some degree among the various parts of the curriculum. Correlation considers a systematic and continued association of one subject to another keeping the subject at high school level. This planned arrangement deals with a common topic or area of interest. Correlation is nothing more than the attempt to tie up knowledge that the pupil is studying with the knowledge in a related field.  
The advantages of correlation design are that it fills in the gaps within curriculum of two subjects that are related. The two subjects are combined in innovative ways and the students are able to see the connections between the two of them. The disadvantages are that few teachers have enough expertise in the two subjects to successful correlate them in a curriculum. In addition, few teachers have the time to collaborate with their peers on a project such as this.  Despite these issues, correlation design is an option for teachers interested in creating a unique curriculum for the needs of their students.
Two types of correlation
Incidental correlation- In this the teacher tries to tie up the topic or the event that the pupils are studying with the related knowledge that he has learned elsewhere. Naturally the extent of this type of correlation will depended up on the teacher.
Subject correlation – It has often been the topic of curriculum revision. Attempts have been made to correlate history and literature. For example – American history is studied at the same time as American literature, and teachers of both subjects confer frequently to prepare the program that will help the pupils to t
ie up the knowledge of both subjects. Plans have been made to correlate history and geography. Another plan of correlation may be found in the single correlated courses in which first a unit of geography is taught, then a related unit of history and finally a related unit of civics. An extreme attempt of correlation is one in curriculum. But generally correlation resulted in a loss of attainment in the real objectives of education.
Integration
One of the guiding principles of the curriculum is coherence, whereby students are offered “a broad education that makes links within and across learning areas”.  When used effectively, curriculum integration provides a learning environment that offers this coherent education, allowing connections to be made within and across subjects.  None theless, it could be argued that curriculum integration remains one of the most confused topics in education today. Many teachers and researchers use the term to mean a variety of things, some of which have nothing to do with curriculum integration. The confusions surrounding the term have undoubtedly hindered consistent professional development and research in this area. Curriculum integration is a design that supports the need for learners to be actively involved in their learning, through being part of the decision-making process.
Current talk about curriculum integration is almost completely a historical, suggesting alternately that it is rooted in reforms of the 1960s or that it is a recent ‘fad’ that began in the late 1980s. Furthermore, the same current talk almost always implies that curriculum integration is simply a matter of rearranging lesson plans as overlaps among subject areas are identified. One of the best ways to understand curriculum integration is to discuss what it is not. First, it is not a historical, as Beane rightly points out. The roots of curriculum integration are to be found in the progressive education movement of the early 1900s and are evident in the work of Dewey (1910, 1913), Kilpatrick (1926) and others. Dewey (1902) stated that within the curriculum, “facts are torn away from their original place in experience and rearranged with reference to some general principle” Curriculum integration is responsive to this concern because it values the students’ prior knowledge and uses this as an initial starting point to be built upon. This is an active process that makes learning relevant to what the students already know. Integration means the creation of units of understanding that consisted of integrated materials of instruction from several fields in order to present a whole picture of a phase of knowledge rather than a part. Integration as applied to subject matter is generally accepted as a median between correlation and fusion. Integration the process that cuts across the subject boundaries more freely than is done in correlation in order to place greater stress on inter-relationship. The objective of such field however makes it desirable that the various fields of knowledge should not be taught by several individuals. A single instructor of wide training world is better if the course is to have unity. However the work may be successfully carried out in the social studies teacher assumes full charge of the course and directs the work of the other teachers. Integrated courses present many administrative problems.

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